•Japan 

and 

Die  California  Problem 

By 
T.  lyenaga,  Ph.D. 

Professorial  Lecturer  in  the  Department  of  Political  Science, 
University  of  Chicago 

and 

Kenoske  Sato,  M.A. 

Formerly  Fellow  in  the  University  of  Chicago 


G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

New  York  and  London 
Ikntcfcerbochet   press 
1921 


Copyright.  1921 

by 
G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

Printed  in  the  United  Slates  of  Ameri 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTORY       3 

CHAPTER  II 
JAPANESE  TRAITS  AND  PHILOSOPHY  OF  LIFE  .        9 

Emotional  Nature — Esthetic  Temperament — Group 
Consciousness  —  Adaptable  Disposition  —  Spirit  of 
Proletarian  Chivalry —Philosophy  of  Life — New 
\      Turn  in  Thought. 

CHAPTER  III 
JAPAN'S  ASIATIC  POLICY         .  -33 

Korean  Situation  —  Policy  of  Self -Preservation  — 
Shantung  Settlement — Cooperation  with  China — 
Understanding  with  America  —  Japan's  Proper 
Sphere  of  Activity. 

CHAPTER  IV 

BACKGROUND  OF  JAPANESE  EMIGRATION          .      50 

Causes  of   Emigration   and   Immigration  —  Japan's 
Land  Area — Agriculture — Population — Industry — 
V       Social  Factors. 

CHAPTER  V 
ATTEMPTS  AT  EMIGRATION:  RESULTS       .         .       64 

Australia  —  Canada  —  South  America  —  The  United 
.  States  — R<isults.  ~ 

iii 


iv  Contents 


CHAPTER  VI 

CAUSES  OF  ANTI- JAPANESE  AGITATION    .         .      75 

Modern  Civilization  —  Various  Attitudes  Towards 
Japanese — Psychological  Nature  of  the  Cause — 
Chinese  Agitation  Inherited  —  Local  Politics  — 
"Yellow  Peril" — Propaganda — Racial  Difference 
— Japanese  Nationality — Modern  Nationalism — 
Congestion  in  California — Fear  and  Envy  Incited 
by  Japanese  Progress — Summary. 

CHAPTER  VII 

FACTS  ABOUT  THE  JAPANESE  IN  CALIFORNIA — 
POPULATION  AND  BIRTH  RATE    ...       90 

Number  of  Japanese  in  California — Immigration — 
"  Gentlemen's  Agreement ' '  —  Smuggling  —  Birth 
Rate — What  we  May  Expect  in  the  Future. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

FACTS  ABOUT  THE  JAPANESE  IN  CALIFORNIA- 
FARMERS  AND  ALIEN  LAND  LAWS  .     120 

History  of  Japanese  Agriculture  in  California — Causes 
of  Progress  —  Japanese  Farm  Labor  —  Japanese 
Farmers — An  ti- Alien  Land  Laws — Land  Laws  of 
Japan— Effect  of  the  Initiative  Bill. 

CHAPTER  IX 
ASSIMILATION .     148 

Nationalism  and  Assimilation — Meaning  of  "  Assimi 
lation  " — Biological  Assimilation — Is  Assimilation 
without  Intermarriage  Possible? — Cultural  As 
similation — Assimilability  of  Japanese  Immigrants 
— Native- Born  Japanese. 

CHAPTER  X 

GENERAL  CONCLUSION    .         .        .         .         .178 


Contents  v 

APPENDIXES 

PAGE 

APPENDIX  A 198 

Charts  on  Comparative  Height  and  Weight  of  Ameri 
can,  Japanese-American,  and  Japanese  Children. 

APPENDIX  B 201 

Extracts  from  the  Treaty  of  Commerce  and  Navi 
gation  and  Protocol  between  Japan  and  the  United 
States  of  America,  of  February  21,  1911. 

APPENDIX  C          .  .  .  204 

California's  Alien  Land  Law,  Approved  May  19,  1913. 

APPENDIX  D  ...  .     207 

Alien  Land  Law,  Adopted  November  2,  1920. 

APPENDIX  E 216 

Crops  Raised  by  Japanese  and  their  Acreage. 

APPENDIX  F  .  ,'217 

Japanese  Immigration  to  the  United  States. 

APPENDIX  G  .  .  218 

Japanese  Admitted  into  Continental  United  States; 
Arrivals  and  Departures. 

APPENDIX  H          .         .         .  .         .     218 

Immigrants  and  Non-Immigrants. 

APPENDIX  I 219 

Distribution  of  Japanese  and  Chinese  Population  in 
the  United  States. 

APPENDIX  J  ......     220 

Distribution  of  Japanese  in  the  United  Stmes,  Ac 
cording  to  the  Consular  Division,  as  Reported  by 
Foreign  Department,  Japan. 


vi  Contents 

PAGE 

APPENDIX  K          .  .  .221 

An  Abstract  of  Expatriation  Law  of  Japan. 

APPENDIX  L 223 

A  Minute  of  Hearing  at  Seattle,  Washington,  before 
the  House  Sub-Committee  on  Immigration  and 
Naturalization. 

APPENDIX  M         ......     230 

Comparative  Standing  of  Intelligence  and  Behavior 
of  American-born  Japanese  Children  and  American 
Children  Discussed  by  Several  Principals  of  Ele 
mentary  Schools  of  Los  Angeles,  California. 


LITERATURE  ON  THE  SUBJECT         .         .         .     238 
INDEX 247 


Japan  and  the  California  Problem 


Japan   and 
The  California  Problem 


CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTORY 

WHEN,  during  the  middle  years  of  the  last 
century,  thousands  of  stalwart  pioneers 
moved  westward  to  California  in  quest  of  gold, 
they  had  no  idea  whatsoever  of  the  part  of  destiny 
they  were  playing.  When,  synchronously  with 
that  movement,  Commodore  Perry  crossed  the 
Pacific  and  forced  open  the  doors  of  Japan  with 
the  prime  object  of  securing  safe  anchorage,  water, 
and  provisions  for  the  daring  American  schooners 
then  busily  engaged  in  trade  with  China,  he  never 
dreamed  of  the  tremendous  result  which  he  was 
thereby  bringing  about.  What  those  men  were 
doing  unconsciously  was  nothing  short  of  pre 
paring  the  way  for  contact  and  ultimate  harmoni 
ous  progress  of  two  great  branches  of  mankind 
and  civilization  which  originally  sprang  from  a 

3 


4        Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

common  root,  but  which  in  the  course  of  thousands 
of  years  of  independent  development  have  come 
to  possess  strikingly  different  characteristics. 

Culture  is  aggressive  and  masculine;  it  craves 
conquest  and  vaunts  victory.  Once  let  loose  in 
the  open  field  of  the  Pacific,  the  East  and  West 
are  now  involved  in  a  mighty  tournament,  the 
outcome  of  which  is  yet  beyond  mortal  imagina 
tion.  The  most  we  can  hope  for  is  the  speedy 
realization  of  Kipling's  vision : 

But  there  is  neither  East  nor  West, 

Border,  nor  Breed,  nor  Birth, 
When  two  strong  men  stand  face  to  face, 

Though  they  come  from  the  ends  of  the 
earth. 

The  Oriental  problems  in  California,  originating 
as  they  did  in  the  conflict  of  local,  economic,  and 
political  interests,  have  in  recent  years  come  to 
assume  more  and  more  the  character  of  cultural 
and  racial  questions.  The  forms  and  motives  of 
the  movement  for  the  exclusion  of  the  Orientals 
are  vastly  diverse,  often  counteracting  and  con 
tradictory,  but  deep  in  the  bottom  of  the  whirl 
there  lies  the  fundamental  question  of  race  and 
civilization.  To  say  the  least,  the  present  unrest 
in  California  with  reference  to  the  Japanese  prob 
lem  is  the  intensified,  miniature  form  of  the  general 
struggle  in  which  East  and  West  are  now  being 


Introductory  5 

involved.     Says  Governor  Stephens  of  California 
in  his  letter  to  Secretary  of  State  Colby  : 

California  stands  as  an  outpost  on  the  western  edge 
of  Occidental  civilization.  Her  people  are  the  sons  or 
the  followers  of  the  Argonauts  who  wended  their  way 
westward  .  .  .  and  here,  without  themselves  recog 
nizing  it  at  the  time,  they  took  the  farthest  westward 
step  that  the  white  men  can  take.  From  our  shores 
roll  the  waters  of  the  Pacific.  From  our  coast  the 
mind's  eye  takes  its  gaze  and  sees  on  the  other  shores 
of  that  great  ocean  the  teeming  millions  of  the  Orient, 
with  its  institutions  running  their  roots  into  the  most 
venerable  antiquity,  its  own  inherited  philosophy  and 
standards  of  life,  its  own  peculiar  races  and  colors. 

This  being  the  case,  the  magnitude  of  the 
Japanese  problem  in  California  can  hardly  be 
exaggerated.  Enveloped  in  a  state  under  the  guise 
of  local  conflict,  the  problem  is,  nevertheless,  a 
gigantic  one,  involving  vital  questions  of  world 
destiny.  Shall  the  races  of  Asia  and  Europe, 
brought  together  by  the  progress  of  science,  be 
once  more  strictly  separated?  Cannot  different 
races,  while  remaining  biologically  distinct,  form 
together  the  strong  factors  of  a  unified  nation? 
Should  white  races  organize  in  defense  of  them 
selves  against  "the  rising  tide  of  color"  and  invoke 
race  war  of  an  unprecedented  scale  and  conse 
quence?  Is  it  not  possible  to  arrive  at  some  prin 
ciple  by  which  the  contact  of  white  and  yellow 


6        Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

races  may  be  rendered  a  source  of  human  happi 
ness  instead  of  being  a  cause  for  all  the  evil  con 
sequences  imaginable?  These  are  some  of  the 
questions  which  are  contained  in  the  Asiatic 
problem  in  California. 

Already  a  considerable  quantity  of  literature 
has  appeared  which  sounds  an  extremely  pessi 
mistic  forecast  of  the  future  of  Eurasiatic  relation 
ship.  Some  writers  erroneously  divide  mankind 
into  so  many  races  by  the  color  of  the  skin,  as  if 
each  were  a  pure,  homogeneous  race,  and  they 
indulge  in  the  risky  speculation  of  "inevitable" 
race  war  between  the  white  race,  which  hitherto 
held  supremacy,  and  the  yellow  race,  which  is  now 
attaining  a  position  of  serious  rivalry.  Others 
urge  the  imperative  need  of  organizing  the  white 
nations  into  a  supernational  state  in  order  to 
enable  them  to  weather  the  threatened  attacks 
from  the  yellow  races.  All  these  arguments  are 
based  on  the  presumption  that  the  Asiatic  races 
wherever  they  go — in  Australia,  Canada,  or  America 
— create  conflict  with  the  Aryan  race.  The  fallacy 
of  such  arguments  lies  in  envisaging  the  large 
problem  of  East  and  West  from  its  partial  expres 
sion.  The  anti-Asiatic  movement  in  the  new 
world  is  certainly  a  significant  problem,  but  it  is 
only  an  incidental  and  local  phenomenon  of  the 
great  process  under  way  of  cultural  unification. 


Introductory  7 

That  the  California  problem  is  not  all  that  is  in 
volved  in  the  relationship  of  Asia  and  America 
can  readily  be  seen  by  the  incessant  increase,  in 
spite  of  it,  of  close  cooperation  between  them. 
In  science,  in  art,  in  religion,  in  ideals,  in  industry, 
and  commerce,  and,  last  but  not  least,  in  senti 
ment,  the  peoples  of  these  continents  find  them 
selves  ever  more  closely  bound  together,  learning 
to  appreciate  the  inestimable  value  thereby 
created,  and  fast  widening  the  scope  of  their  group 
consciousness  so  as  to  embrace  all  mankind,  thus 
concretely  vindicating  the  futility  of  the  idle 
speculation  of  race  war  based  on  the  mere  differ 
ence  of  skin  pigmentation. 

If  the  error  of  race-war  theory  arises  from  ab 
sorption  in  parts,  overlooking  their  relations  with 
the  whole — from  magnifying  out  of  proportion  the 
local  racial  conflict  to  the  extent  of  eclipsing  the 
value  and  significance  of  vastly  more  important 
relations — it  behooves  us  to  avoid  such  grievous 
mistakes  and  to  view  the  situation  in  a  broader 
perspective.  Indeed,  the  key  to  the  understand 
ing  and  the  solution  of  the  difficulty  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  is  in  viewing  it  in  the  light  of  friendship  and 
cooperation  between  America  and  Japan.  Then, 
and  only  then,  does  it  become  clear  how  impor 
tant  it  is  to  approach  the  problem  with  prudence 
and  foresight,  and  to  endeavor  to  solve  it  in  a 


8        Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

spirit  of  fairness  and  justice.  It  then  becomes 
plain,  in  the  face  of  the  vastly  important  tasks 
involved  in  wisely  conducting  the  relationship  of 
Orient  and  Occident,  how  foolish  and  cowardly  it  is 
to  assume  a  negative  attitude  of  fear  and  with 
drawal  from  the  natural  circumstance  which  time 
has  brought  about.  Whether  one  likes  it  or  not, 
the  world  is  already  made  one,  and  any  human 
attempt  to  divide  it  into  air-tight  compartments  is 
hopeless.  We  are  bound  to  have  yet  closer  con 
tacts  among  all  races  and  nations.  The  way  to  a 
satisfactory  solution  of  the  California  problem 
clearly  lies  in  a  closer  and  more  intimate  associa 
tion — in  a  word,  better  mutual  understanding 
between  Orientals  and  Occidentals. 

Let  us  then  honestly  seek  to  comprehend  the 
heart  of  the  difficulty  and  frankly  discuss  the 
question,  un trammeled  by  any  bias,  prepossessions, 
or  fear;  with  eyes  steadily  fixed  on  the  larger 
aspects  of  the  problem;  eager  to  arrive  at  some 
constructive  principles  of  solution  satisfactory  to 
all  concerned. 


CHAPTER  II 

JAPANESE  TRAITS    AND   PHILOSOPHY 
OF   LIFE 

THE  national  traits  of  different  peoples  are, 
like  our  faces,  similar  in  rough  outline  but 
infinitely  different  in  the  finer  details.  The  people 
of  Japan  are  in  the  larger  characteristics  not 
different  from  any  other  people;  they  are  part  of 
the  aggregate  of  human  beings  and  they  possess 
all  the  instincts  and  desires  which  are  common  to 
humanity.  But,  as  distinguished  from  other 
peoples,  they  display  certain  individual  charac 
teristics  which  are  the  product  of  a  unique  environ 
ment  and  history. 

Emotional  Nature. 

Perhaps  the  most  prominent  characteristic  of 
the  Japanese  is  their  excitable,  emotional  nature, 
which  among  the  ignorant  is  often  expressed  in 
turbulent  and  irascible  action,  and  which  among 
the  refined  takes  the  form  of  a  fine  sentimentality 
and  temperamental  delicacy.  This  is  rather  the 
direct  opposite  of  the  American  disposition,  which 

9 


io      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

is  stable,  blunt  and  big,  hearty  and  generous.  Such 
difference  is  greatly  responsible  for  mutual  mis 
understandings,  such  as  the  Japanese  charge  that 
the  American  is  discourteous  and  inconsiderate, 
and  the  American  impression  that  the  Japanese  is 
dissimulating,  not  to  say  tricky. 

The  emotional  temper  of  the  Japanese  has 
played  a  large  role  in  their  history  and  constitutes 
a  conspicuous  factor  in  their  national  life.  If  the 
history  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  is  primarily  a  story  of 
competition  and  struggle  for  the  control  of  power 
and  the  pursuit  of  material  interests,  that  of  the 
Japanese  is  a  drama  of  sentimental  entanglement 
largely  removed  from  material  issues.  Without 
due  regard  to  the  role  played  by  emotion,  the 
history  of  the  Japanese  people  is  wholly  incompre 
hensible.  What,  for  instance,  incited  Hideyoshi 
to  invade  Korea  in  1592?  What  made  the  Jap 
anese  accept  so  readily  the  teachings  of  the  Jesuit 
Fathers  during  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century?  What  more  recently  induced  Japan  to 
insist  at  the  Paris  Conference  on  recognition  of 
racial  equality  by  the  League  of  Nations? 

If  the  emotionalism  of  the  race  has  been  deepty 
influential  in  the  historic  drama,  it  has  been  no 
less  persuasive  in  the  political  and  social  life  of  the 
present-day  Japan.  Compare  the  Constitutions  of 
America  and  Japan.  If  the  outstanding  features 


Japanese  Traits  and  Philosophy  of  Life    1 1 

of  the  American  Constitution  are  the  safeguarding 
of  the  interests  and  rights  of  the  individual,  the 
states,  and  the  nation,  those  of  the  Japanese 
Constitution  are  the  expressions  of  the  people's 
anxiety  to  recognize  and  perpetuate  their  beloved 
head,  the  Emperor,  as  the  great,  the  divine  ruler  of 
their  ideals.  Although  the  onslaught  of  material 
ism  has  wrought  some  changes  in  recent  years, 
there  yet  remains  the  ineradicable  proof  of  Jap 
anese  emotionalism  in  the  realm  of  marriage  and 
love,  where  all  earthly  considerations  are  forgotten, 
if  not  tabooed,  and  in  the  realms  of  family  and  of 
society,  where  the  relations  between  parents  and 
children,  and  between  friends  and  neighbors,  are 
conducted  with  an  assured  sense  of  devotion,  love, 
and  good  will.  The  same  tendency  is  to  be  rec 
ognized  in  almost  all  Japanese  institutions, 
educational,  military,  and  political,  while  it  is 
particularly  true  in  the  realm  of  aesthetics,  includ 
ing,  art,  literature,  and  music — a  realm  that  is 
ruled  by  sentiment. 

In  the  common  daily  life  of  the  Japanese  their 
emotionalism  expresses  itself  in  almost  infinitely 
diverse  ways.  Their  peculiarly  strong  sense  of 
pride  and  dignity,  individual,  family,  and  national, 
a  sense  for  which  the  Japanese  will  make  any 
sacrifice,  comes  from  their  highly-strung  nervous 
system.  Their  keen  sense  of  pride  gives  rise  to 


V 


12      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

another  marked  Japanese  peculiarity — an  exces 
sive  susceptibility  to  the  opinions  and  feelings  of 
their  fellow  men.  Social  ostracism  to  the  Japanese 
is  a  punishment  which  is  often  more  unbearable 
than  the  death  penalty.  The  peculiarly  high  rate 
of  suicides  in  Japan  is  explained  by  statisticians 
as  being  largely  due  to  some  mistake  or  sin  for 
which  the  offender  w.ould  rather  die  than  be  chas 
tised  by  society.  The  cold-blooded  hara  kiri  was 
an  institution  by  which  the  Samurai  could  sustain 
his  honor  or  save  his  face  when  involved  in  dis 
grace.  High-spirited  temper,  suppressed  by  ethical 
teachings,  social  conventions,  and  rigorous  dis 
cipline,  results  in  a  singular  contrast  between 
external  physical  expressions  and  internal  feelings. 
The  placid  faces,  reserved  manners,  and  reticence 
are  but  masks  of  the  intense,  burning  spirit,  whose 
spontaneous  expression  has  been  inhibited  by  cen 
turies  of  stoic  training.  It  is  most  unfortunate 
that  this  virtue  in  the  Oriental  sense  has  frequently 
been  a  cause  of  misunderstanding,  making  the 
Japanese  appear  dissimulating,  and,  therefore, 
untrustworthy. 

But  at  heart  the  Japanese  are  neither  as  inscrut 
able  or  deceitful  as  some  believe,  nor  are  they  as 
intriguing  or  profound  as  these  terms  would  imply. 
They  are  kind  and  sympathetic,  easily  moved  by 
the  attitude  of  others,  quite  simple-minded  and 


Japanese  Traits  and  Philosophy  of  Life   13 

honest,  lacking  tenacity,  audacity,  iron  will,  or  cold 
deliberation.  In  these  respects,  as  in  many  others, 
the  Japanese  possess  some  of  the  weaker  traits  of 
the  South  European  peoples.  They  have  proved 
heretofore  not  a  great  people,  but  a  little  people 
"who  are  great  in  little  things  and  little  in  great 
things." 

The  simple  explanation  of  Japanese  sentimen- 
talism  may  be  found  in  one  of  the  original  race 
stocks  which  migrated  from  southern  islands  of 
tropical  climate,  where  emotion  rather  than  will 
guides  the  conduct  of  the  people.  The  topographi 
cal  and  climatic  conditions  of  Japan  have  also 
had  their  influence,  and  these,  with  the  numerous 
volcanic  eruptions,  frequent  earthquakes,  and  re 
current  typhoons,  have  given  the  people  the  dis 
position  of  restlessness  and  excitement.  Perhaps 
also  the  social  system  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which 
was  unduly  autocratic  and  despotic,  irritated  the 
lower  classes,  driving  them  to  turbulent  and 
" peppery"  conduct. 

Esthetic  Temperament. 

The  next  characteristic  of  the  Islander  is  one 
which  is  closely  related  to  the  preceding  trait.  It 
is  artistic  temperament.  Some  scholars  of  archaeo 
logy  attempted  to  trace  this  characteristic  to  the 
original  settlers  of  the  empire,  but  the  resultant 


14      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

opinions  are  so  diverse  as  to  deny  scientific  valid 
ity.  Some  of  them  maintain  that  the  Ainu,  the 
earliest  known  settlers  in  Japan,  a  now  dwindling 
race  living  in  the  northern  island  called  Hokkaido, 
were  originally  a  very  artistic  people,  contributing 
much  to  the  aesthetic  temperament  of  the  Japanese. 
There  are  other  scholars  who  insist  that  the 
Yamato  race,  and  not  the  Ainu,  was  the  most  artis 
tic,  while  there  are  still  others  who  uphold  the 
view  that  it  was  the  vast  horde  of  migrators  coming 
from  Korea,  Tartary,  and  China  who  brought  with 
them  the  love  of  beauty.  But  these  are  specula 
tions  of  prehistorical  conditions  which  are  largely 
hidden  from  us  by  the  veil  of  mythology.  What 
we  can  be  sure  of  is  that  the  influence  on  the  people 
of  the  exceptionally  beautiful  natural  surround 
ings  reflected  itself  in  their  artistic  genius.  En 
couragement  of  art  and  literature  and  of  artistic 
productions  generally  through  the  patronage  of 
aristocrats,  who  enjoyed  from  the  earlier  ages 
leisure  and  wealth,  has  also  had  much  to  do  in 
making  the  Japanese  artistic. 

What  influence  has  this  aesthetic  temperament 
exerted  on  the  life  of  the  Japanese?  In  the  first 
place,  it  has  rendered  Japanese  civilization  mark 
edly  feminine.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
creative  efforts  of  the  people  were  mainly  directed 
to  personal  and  home  decoration  and  to  literary 


Japanese  Traits  and  Philosophy  of  Life    15 

and  artistic  pursuits,  instead  of  to  masculine  efforts 
to  fight  and  conquer  the  forces  of  nature,  from 
which  alone  the  sciences  are  born.  Particularly 
noticeable  was  the  almost  total  absence  of  science 
in  Japan,  in  striking  contrast  to  the  remarkable 
wealth  of  art  at  the  time,  some  half  a  century  ago, 
when  the  country  began  a  critical  introspection  of 
itself  in  comparison  with  other  nations. 

In  the  second  place,  it  had  the  effect  of  making 
the  people  inclined  to  underestimate  the  value  of 
material  things  and  to  exaggerate  the  glory  of  the 
spiritual  aspects  of  life.  This  is  most  clearly  seen 
in  the  teachings  of  Bushido,1  which  laid  strong 
emphasis  on  the  baseness  of  the  conduct  that  has 
for  its  motive  pecuniary  or  material  interests,  and 
which  taught  the  subordination  of  the  body  to  the 
soul  as  the  most  essential  virtue  of  the  Samurai. 
The  traditional  custom  of  sacrificing  the  material 
side  of  a  question  for  the  satisfaction  and  uphold 
ing  of  the  emotional  side  still  survives  in  present 
Japan,  and  constitutes  one  of  the  marked  charac 
teristics  of  the  Japanese.  His  strong  inclination 
towards  imagination,  meditation,  and  religious 
belief  is  too  well  known  a  fact  to  require  more  than 
a  mention  here. 

It  seems  true  that  people  gifted  aesthetically  are 
more  apt  to  turn  hedonistic.  While  it  remains 

1  The  System  of  Samurai  Ethics  and  Obligations  of  Honor. 


16      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

doubtful  whether  the  Japanese  are  more  immoral 
than  other  peoples,  as  is  so  frequently  charged,  it  is 
quite  true  that  they  take  more  delight  in  a  leisurely 
comfort  of  living,  going  to  picnics,  attending 
theaters,  calling  upon  friends,  and  holding  various 
ceremonies  and  feasts.  Generally  speaking,  al 
though  not  given  to  excesses,  they  show  no  puri 
tanic  disposition  about  drink  and  are  lavish 
spenders  for  luxuries.  In  the  tea  houses  and  other 
places  of  social  amusement  they  spend  money 
often  beyond  the  reasonable  proportion  of  their 
income.  They  are  not  a  thrifty  people. 

Group  Consciousness. 

Next  to  the  artistic  disposition  must  be  men 
tioned  their  strong  group  consciousness.  It  is  true 
that  all  people  have  a  certain  degree  of  group 
consciousness  which  emerges  out  of  the  facts  of 
common  biological  and  cultural  heritage  and 
experience.  But  in  the  case  of  the  Japanese  this 
group  spirit  is  markedly  strong,  expressing  itself 
in  loyalty  and  patriotism.  Most  strangely,  the 
spirit  of  Yamato,  or  the  Japanese  group  spirit,  has 
had  its  source  more  than  anywhere  else  in  primitive 
myths.  Two  ancient  books  of  mythology,  Kojiki 
and  Nihongi,  record  the  story  of  the  Japanese 
ancestors  who  were  originally  born  of  the  gods  of 
heaven  and  earth,  and  who  settled  in  Japan  and 


Japanese  Traits  and  Philosophy  of  Life   17 

established  there*  through  their  brave  deeds  the 
majesty  of  the  Empire  of  Nippon.  From  these 
ancestors  sprang  the  people  of  Japan.  This  myth 
is  faithfully  believed  by  the  Japanese,  and  the 
people  worship  at  the  shrines  where  the  spirits  of 
their  heroic  ancestors  are  supposed  still  to  reside 
guard  the  country.  So  strong  is  this  belief  in 
myth  even  to-day  that,  in  spite  of  the  an  thro- 
logical  discovery  that  the  original  settlers  of  the 
and  were  of  diverse  races  and  possessed  no  ad 
vanced  culture,  the  people  still  cling  to  the  idea 
that  the  Japanese  are  a  pure  and  glorious  race, 
having  sprung  from  one  line  of  ancestors  which  was 
divine  and  which  is  now  represented  by  its  direct 
descendant,  the  Emperor. 

In  addition  to  mythology,  what  bound  the 
Japanese  so  close  together  was  the  natural  environ 
ment  end  the  lack  of  cosmopolitan  associations. 
Marooned  as  they  were  on  little  islands,  the  mutual 
association  and  intermarriage  of  people  took  place 
freely,  and  in  the  course  of  time  established  a  sub 
stantially  complete  homogeneity  of  the  population. 
The  internal  unity  was  further  strengthened  by 
the  policy  of  national  seclusion,  which  gave  the 
common  people  the  idea  that  Japan  was  the  only 
universe  and  that  the  Japanese  were  the  only 
people  on  earth.  In  modern  times,  the  group  spirit 
or  patriotism  has  been  skillfully  encouraged  and 


1 8      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

enkindled  by  utilizing  the  national  experience  of 
the  wars  with  China  and  Russia,  and  by  a  system 
of  education  which  aimed  to  impress  on  the  minds 
of  children  the  glory  of  their  people  and  history, 
the  absolute  duty  of  being  loyal  to  the  Emperor, 
and  the  hostile  tendency  of  foreign  countries  to 
ward  their  own. 

What  the  people  gain  by  narrow  patriotism  in 
the  maintenance  of  national  integrity  they  lose  in 
their  failure  to  take  a  broad  view  of  things.  This 
stubbornly  obstructs  the  Japanese  in  their  efforts 
to  view  their  country  in  its  proper  relation  to  other 
countries;  it  hinders  them  from  being  "Romans 
when  in  Rome  " ;  it  makes  the  idea  of  following  the 
example  of  England,  the  policy  of  loose  national 
expansion,  wholly  unthinkable — Japanese  colonies 
must  be  exclusively  Japanese.  The  chief  cause  of 
the  failure  of  Japanese  colonization  and  emigra 
tion  must  be  attributed  to  the  strong  conscious 
ness  of  the  Yamato  Minzoku  (Yamato  race). 
This  has  made  the  Japanese  noticeably  narrow- 
minded,  quite  awkward  in  their  relations  with 
different  peoples,  and  more  or  less  given  to  race 
prejudice.  The  reputation  of  the  Japanese  as 
poor  mixers  is  well  known.  Their  strong  race 
prejudice  has  been  exemplified  by  their  attitude 
toward  the  Chinese,  Koreans,  and  the  outcast 
class  of  their  fellow  countrymen,  called  Eta, 


Japanese  Traits  and  Philosophy  of  Life   19 

which  has  been  nothing  short  of  prejudicial 
discrimination. 

In  spite  of  the  desperate  efforts  of  the  militarists 
and  bureaucrats  to  conserve  narrow  patriotism 
and  racial  pride,  it  has  been  found  increasingly 
difficult  to  do  so,  since  the  facts  and  thoughts  of 
the  West  became  accessible  to  the  people.  When 
the  marvelous  scientific  achievements  of  the  Occi 
dental  peoples,  their  advanced  political  and  social 
systems,  their  profound  philosophies  of  life  and  of 
the  universe,  together  with  their  superior  physique 
and  formidable  armament,  were  appreciated,  it 
became  all  too  apparent,  even  to  the  most  con 
ceited  mind,  that  the  culture  and  racial  stock,  in 
which  the  Japanese  had  taken  so  much  pride, 
were  sadly  inferior,  and  that  years  of  hard  toil 
would  be  necessary  before  they  could  be  the  equals 
of  the  Occidentals.  The  pathetic  cry  of  Japan  for 
recognition  of  racial  equality  by  the  League  of 
Nations  is  a  reluctant  admission  of  this  fact. 

The  outcome  of  this  disillusionment  has  been 
the  appearance  of  three  currents  of  thought  with 
reference  to  the  national  policy.  One  is  the  ultra 
Occidentalism  which  sees  nothing  good  in  their 
own  country  and  people,  and  hence  is  extremely 
merciless  and  outspoken  in  denunciation  of  things 
Japanese,  but  which  admires  even  to  the  point  of 
worship  almost  everything  that  is  European  and 


2O      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

American.  To  this  school  belong  many  younger 
radicals  who  are  more  or  less  socialistically  inclined 
and  who  would  like  to  see  Japan  converted  into  a 
republic  or  a  Bolshevik  communism.  Categori 
cally  opposed  to  this  thought  is  another  school, 
which  its  adherents  call  "  Japanism."  This  school 
sees  nothing  new  or  worth  while  in  things  Occi 
dental,  and  advocates,  after  the  reasoning  of 
Rousseau,  a  return  to  natural  Japan.  Between 
these  two  extremes  stand  the  majority  of  sane 
intellectuals,  who  clearly  perceive  both  the  limi 
tations  and  the  strength  of  Japan,  and  endeavor  to 
benefit  through  learning  and  assimilating  the  valu 
able  experience  of  advanced  nations. 

Adaptable  Disposition. 

Another  notable  feature  of  the  Japanese  is  their 
meager  endowment  of  originality  and,  conversely, 
their  marked  aptitude  for  adaptability.  A  glance 
at  the  outline  of  Japanese  history  shows  how  much 
the  Japanese  borrowed  from  other  peoples  in 
almost  all  phases  of  civilization  and  how  little  they 
themselves  have  created.  Indeed,  there  is  hardly 
anything  which  belongs  to  Japan  that  cannot  be 
traced  originally  to  the  earnest  creative  effort  of 
other  peoples.  The  same  may  be  said  of  modern 
peoples,  who,  with  the  exception  of  scientific  in 
ventions,  have  mainly  derived  their  culture  from 


Japanese  Traits  and  Philosophy  of  Life   21 

the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Whatever  difference  the 
future  may  witness,  the  Japanese  thus  far  have  been 
borrowers  and  receivers  of  other  races'  accomplish 
ments.  Perhaps  this  is  the  cause  of  the  rapid  de 
velopment  of  the  Japanese,  who  have  succeeded 
in  imitating  and  assimilating  the  strong  points  of 
nations  in  succession  from  the  lower  to  the  top  of 
the  hierarchy — from  Korea,  China,  India,  to  Eu 
rope.  When  the  process  reaches  the  top  of  the 
ladder,  let  us  hope  that  Nippon  will  start  for  the 
first  time  real  creative  work. 

Spirit  of  Proletarian  Chivalry. 

The  discussion  of  Japanese  traits  would  be  very 
incomplete  if  we  omitted  one  outstanding  idio 
syncrasy  that  has  not  yet  been  mentioned.  So 
peculiar  is  this  trait  to  the  Japanese  that  there  is 
no  adequate  word  to  designate  it  in  other  lan 
guages.  The  Japanese  express  it  by  such  words  as 
kikotsu,  otokodate,  and  gikyoshin.  The  nearest 
English  equivalents  for  these  terms  would  be 
heroism  and  chivalry.  It  is  a  mixed  sentiment  of 
rebellion  against  bully  power,  sympathy  for  the 
helpless,  and  willingness  to  sacrifice  self  for  the 
sake  of  those  who  have  done  kind  acts.  This  ad 
mirable  sentiment  must  be  strictly  distinguished 
from  the  spirit  of  Bushido,  because  it  has  arisen 
among  the  plebeians  in  place  of  Bushido,  which 


22      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

was  the  way  of  the  Samurai  or  aristocrats,  al 
though  it  may  have  been,  as  some  scholars  claim, 
the  source  of  inspiration  for  the  growth  of  prole 
tarian  chivalry.  Bushido  has  found  an  able  pro- 
pounder  in  Dr.  Nitobe.  Under  the  Tokugawa 
regime  the  Samurai  was  the  flower  and  the  rest 
were  nothing.  The  Samurai  often  abused  their 
privilege  and  oppressed  the  common  people  not 
a  little,  disregarding  their  rights  and  personality. 
Then  a  class  of  plebeians  appeared  who  called 
themselves  "men  of  men, "  and  who  made  it  their 
profession  to  defy  the  bullying  Samurai  and  to 
defend  the  oppressed  people.  It  was  the  virtue  of 
this  class  always  to  help  the  weak  and  crush  the 
strong,  and  to  be  ready  to  lay  down  their  lives  at 
any  moment.  The  story  of  Sakura  Sogoro,  who 
fell  a  martyr  to  the  cause  of  oppressed  peasants, 
has  become  a  classic. 

Thus  originating  in  defiance  of  despotism,  the 
spirit  of  proletarian  chivalry  permeated  among 
the  lower  classes  of  people,  and  to  this  day  it  forms 
the  bulwark  of  the  rights  and  freedom  of  the 
common  people.  Refined  and  enriched  by  the 
embodiment  in  it  of  enlightened  knowledge  and 
ideals,  the  sentiment  came  to  be  on  one  side  a  keen 
appreciation  of  kindness  and  sympathy,  and  on 
the  other  a  strong  hatred  of  oppression  and  in 
justice.  The  present  proletarian  movement  in 


Japanese  Traits  and  Philosophy  of  Life  23 

Japan,  a  movement  which  is  destined  presently 
to  become  a  mighty  social  force,  owes  its  source 
and  guidance  to  "the  ways  of  the  common 
people." 

If  Dr.  Nitobeis  right  in  predicting  that  Bushido, 
"the  way  of  the  Samurai,"  will  eventually  enjoy 
the  glory  of  "blessing  mankind  with  the  perfume 
with  which  it  will  enrich  life,"  we  may  reasonably 
hope  that  proletarian  chivalry  will  succeed  in 
bringing  about  general  freedom  and  democracy  in 
Nippon,  in  defiance  of  military  and  imperialistic 
domination. 

The  understanding  of  this  trait  of  the  common 
people  of  Japan  goes  far  to  explain  what  has 
puzzled  those  Americans  who  wonder  why  the 
Japanese  immigrants  in  this  country  are  so  unsub 
missive  and  rebellious.  In  his  letter  to  the  Legis 
lature  of  Nevada,  the  late  Senator  Newlands 
stated:  "The  presence  of  the  Chinese,  who  are 
patient  and  submissive,  would  not  create  as  many 
complications  as  the  presence  of  Japanese,  whose 
strong  and  virile  qualities  would  constitute  addi 
tional  factors  of  difficulty."  Governor  Stephens  of 
California,  too,  observes  in  his  letter  to  the  Secre 
tary  of  State:  "The  Japanese,  be  it  said  to  their 
credit,  are  not  a  servile  or  docile  stock."  Acquired 
by  centuries  of  opposition  to  arbitrary  power,  the 
trait  has  become  almost  instinctive,  and  expresses 


24      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

itself  even  under  democracy  whenever  they  think 
they  are  unjustly  treated. 

In  discussing  the  features  of  Japanese  character 
thus  far,  we  have  taken  care  to  state  the  known 
causes  which  gave  rise  to  each  trait.  This  has  been 
done  with  a  view  to  preparing  ourselves  to  answer 
the  question;  To  what  extent  are  these  charac 
teristics  of  the  Japanese  inherent  in  the  race  and  to 
what  extent  acquired?  The  answer  which  the 
foregoing  discussion  suggests  is  that  they  are  both 
inherent  and  acquired,  biological  and  social.  While 
racial  stock  is  responsible  to  an  extent,  other  fac 
tors,  such  as  natural  environment  and  social  condi 
tions,  have  helped  to  develop  the  characteristics 
of  the  Japanese.  Perhaps  the  best  criterion  by 
which  we  can  determine  the  relative  strength  of 
heredity  and  environment  in  this  case  is  to  observe 
how  and  in  what  respects  the  Japanese,  born  and 
reared  in  other  countries,  undergo  transformation 
in  their  mentality  and  characteristics.  We  shall 
touch  on  this  point  again  later  when  we  discuss  the 
characteristics  of  the  American-born  Japanese 
children. 

Philosophy  of  Life. 

It  is  but  natural  that  the  philosophy  of  a  nation 
developed  from  the  life  and  experience  of  people 
should  be  deeply  colored  by  their  temperament. 


Japanese  Traits  and  Philosophy  of  Life  25 

After  having  discussed  the  essential  features  of  the 
Japanese  disposition,  it  may  be  easy  to  anticipate 
the  character  of  philosophy  which  rests  on  it.  We 
shall  now  consider  the  outstanding  features  of 
Japanese  thought,  with  a  view  to  interpreting  and 
evaluating  the  spiritual  side  of  Japan's  civilization. 
True  to  the  characteristics  of  the  Japanese,  who 
lack  initiative,  the  thought  of  the  people  also 
manifests  a  marked  absence  of  originality.  Until, 
in  the  early  part  of  the  sixth  century,  Buddhism 
and  Confucianism  came  into  the  country,  the 
Japanese  seem  to  have  had  no  system  of  religion 
or  philosophy  save  fetichism  and  mythology.  The 
advent  of  new  doctrines  of  ethics  and  religion 
caused  a  rapid  transformation  of  the  life  and  ideas 
of  the  people,  elevating  them  by  one  stroke  from 
barbarian  obscurity  to  civilized  enlightenment. 
From  this  time  on  a  childish  admiration  of  mytho 
logical  characters  and  stories  began  to  be  super 
seded  by  an  earnest  effort  for  the  perfection  of  the 
individual  character  and  the  realization  of  social 
ideals;  and  crude  superstitions  were  gradually  re 
placed  by  the  profound  teachings  of  Gautama. 
Out  of  the  religious  zeal  were  developed  admirable 
art  and  literature,  and  from  the  moral  effort  were 
born  elaborate  ethical  codes,  social  order,  and  social 
etiquette.  Thus,  with  raw  materials  imported,  the 
Japanese  worked  diligently  and  carefully  to  turn 


26      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

out  finished  products  well  adapted  to  their  tastes 
and  needs.  If  the  Japanese  were  people  endowed 
with  great  originality,  they  would  surely  have  given 
evidence  of  it  during  nearly  three  hundred  years  of 
national  seclusion  (1570-1868),  when  almost  all 
conditions  requisite  for  a  creative  impulse  were 
present,  including  peace,  prosperity,  need,  and 
encouragement.  In  fact,  however,  the  people  were 
interested  and  absorbed  in  stamping  out  the  feeble 
hold  of  Christian  influence,  in  assimilating  the 
teachings  of  Wang  Yang  Ming,  and  in  recasting 
the  doctrines  of  Confucius  and  Buddha.  When 
the  flood  gates  of  Japan  were  thrown  open  and  the 
tides  of  Occidental  learning  swept  in,  the  Japanese 
were  almost  overwhelmed,  and  found  themselves 
too  busy  in  coping  with  them  to  think  of  the 
original  contribution. 

Lack  of  ability  to  start  new  things  is  generally 
compensated  by  the  capacity  to  borrow  new 
things.  In  the  point  of  borrowing  new  ideas  and 
then  working  these  to  suit  their  own  tastes,  the 
Japanese  are  probably  second  to  no  nation  on 
earth.  Japan  first  borrowed  Confucianism  and 
Buddhism,  and  within  a  short  time  remodeled 
them  in  ways  peculiar  to  her,  rendering  their 
identity  with  the  original  almost  unrecognizable. 
Thus  the  stoic,  pessimistic  character  of  Buddhism 
was  greatly  modified,  becoming  more  or  less  epi- 


Japanese  Traits  and  Philosophy  of  Life   27 

curean  and  optimistic  in  the  hands  of  the  Japanese. 
The  casuistic,  practical,  individualistic  ethics  of 
Confucius  were  radically  changed  to  general 
principles  of  ideal  conduct,  with  the  addition  of 
aesthetic  elements,  and  a  strong  emphasis  laid  on 
group  loyalty  rather  than  on  filial  piety.  It  is  to 
this  ability  of  the  Japanese  to  assimilate  new 
thought  and  new  belief  that  the  unexpected  success 
of  early  Catholic  propaganda  was  chiefly  due. 
To  this  capacity  of  assimilation  is  also  due  the 
origin  of  Bushido,  which  is  essentially  an  eclectic 
of  Confucian,  Taoist,  and  Buddhist  doctrines. 
The  later-day  Shintoism,  the  so-called  cult  of 
ancestor  worship,  is  also  a  product  of  the  skillful 
combination  of  native  mythology,  Taoism,  and 
Confucianism,  with  an  infusion  of  certain  of  the 
Buddhist  doctrines.  That  the  present  Japanese 
civilization  is  largely  a  product  of  assimilation  by 
native  genius  of  American,  French,  German,  and 
English  ideas  and  institutions  is  an  established 
fact.  It  may  be  that  therein  lies  the  hope,  as  many 
Japanese  thinkers  cherish,  of  making  Japan  a 
modern  Alexandria,  where  centuries  of  human 
achievements  in  Asia  and  Europe  may  be  har 
moniously  woven  together  for  the  realization  of  a 
more  perfect  fabric  of  civilization. 

In  literature  it  is  asserted  that  the  creative 
period  is  uncritical  and  the  critical  period  is  barren. 


28      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

It  seems  that  the  critical  tendency  is  the  anti 
thesis  of  creative  effort.  This  applies  to  the 
Japanese,  who  do  not  create  but  who  are  keenly 
critical.  Instinctively  bent  on  absorbing  new 
ideas,  they  immediately  react  to  any  new  schools 
of  thought — turning  from  Eucken  to  Bergson,  again 
to  Russell,  now  to  Einstein — but  they  soon  begin 
to  analyze  their  doctrines  and  to  find  fault  and 
fallacy  here  and  there,  and,  finally,  are  ready  to 
depreciate  them  wholesale.  In  so  doing,  of  course, 
they  assimilate  some  of  the  good  points  involved  in 
various  systems.  The  chief  obstacle  which  Chris 
tianity,  as  interpreted  by  healthy-minded  mission 
aries,  encounters  in  Nippon  is  the  sceptical  temper 
of  the  Japanese  intellectuals. 

A  strong  appeal  to  emotionalism  and  to  the  sense 
of  beauty  rather  than  to  cold  reason  and  un 
pleasant  realities  is  another  common  characteris 
tic  of  Japanese  philosophy.  The  Japanese  have 
always  taken  pride  in  expressing  great  truths  in  a 
short  verse  form  called  Uta,  with  choice  words 
and  exquisite  phrases.  Until  the  advent  of  Euro 
pean  learning,  poetry  and  philosophy  were  never 
clearly  distinguished  in  Japan.  Love  of  emotional 
ism  naturally  leads  Japanese  thought  to  humanism 
rather  than  to  metaphysical  speculation. 

From  this  it  may  be  thought  that  English  posi 
tivism  would  find  great  vogue  in  Japan.  In  fact, 


Japanese  Traits  and  Philosophy  of  Life   29 

the  influence  of  Adam  Smith,  Bentham,  Mill, 
Mai  thus,  and  others  was  a  considerable  factor  in 
shaping  modern  Japanese  thought.  But  at  bottom 
the  Japanese  are  not  utilitarians.  They  are  by 
temper  idealists.  The  magical  power  by  which 
German  idealism  as  propounded  by  Kant,  Hegel, 
and  Fichte,  and  more  recently  by  Lotze  and 
Eucken,  controls  the  Japanese  mind  is  astounding. 
Nearly  all  the  prominent  philosophers  of  the 
Meiji  era  may  be  classed  under  some  branch  of 
German  idealism.  The  fact  that  of  American 
thinkers  Emerson  is  more  widely  read  than  any 
other,  and  that  Royce  is  more  popular  than  James, 
is  no  accident.  If  pragmatism  appeals  to  the 
Japanese  mind,  it  is  not  in  the  logical  form  of 
Professor  Dewey  but  rather  in  the  aesthetic  pres 
entation  of  Santayana. 

New  Turn  in  Thought. 

Recently,  however,  or  more  particularly  since 
the  war,  the  trend  of  Japanese  thought  has  began 
to  follow  a  somewhat  different  path.  Industrial 
revolution,  which  has  been  rapidly  advancing 
during  the  past  twenty  years,  reached  its  culmina 
tion  during  the  war,  when  various  forces  acci- 
dently  combined  in  bringing  about  universal 
recognition  of  the  need  for  radical  social  reorgani 
zation.  Capitalism,  which  had  in  the  course  of 


3O      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

time  grown  to  be  a  gigantic  power,  proved  unable 
to  adapt  itself  to  the  changing  conditions  of  the 
day,  and  it  thus  obstructed  the  onward  march  of 
liberalism  and  democracy.  Labor,  however, 
shook  off  the  dust  of  long  humiliation,  and  began 
with  united  front  to  demand  recognition  of  its 
rights  and  of  humanity.  The  struggle  naturally 
forced  the  attention  of  the  people  to  the  actual 
condition  of  society,  where  the  poor  majority  are 
sadly  left  in  destitution,  where  sins  and  crime  are 
sapping  the  very  vitality  of  the  people,  where  the 
rich  are  abusing  their  fortunes  for  deplorable 
ends.  Then  came  the  European  downfall  of  autoc 
racy  and  the  triumph  (at  least  for  a  short  time)  of 
democracy.  Liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity 
became  once  more  the  slogan  of  the  time.  All  these 
forces  united  and  started  a  reform  movement, 
upsetting  to  a  certain  degree  the  age-long  social 
system  of  Nippon. 

The  three  years  of  confusion  did  a  lasting  good. 
The  German  systems  of  government,  diplomacy, 
education,  military  affairs,  and  philosophy,  to 
which  the  Japanese  had  hitherto  adhered  too 
blindly,  were,  one  after  another,  filtrated  and 
purified,  thereby  removing  much  of  the  scum  that 
was  in  them.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  for  hard 
ened  militarists  and  bureaucrats  to  get  rid  of  the 
beliefs  in  which  they  were  born  and  brought  up 


Japanese  Traits  and  Philosophy  of  Life  31 

and  which  have  become  endeared;  but  the  old 
generations  are  gradually  dying  off,  carrying  with 
them  to  the  grave  the  skeleton  of  systems  which 
are  now  dead.  In  open  rebellion  against  these 
falling  autocrats  there  arose  a  great  number  of 
brilliant  young  people,  bred  and  trained  in  the 
new  school  of  liberty  and  democracy,  with  courage 
and  foresight  to  complete  the  second  Restoration— 
that  of  the  rights  of  humanity  belonging  to  the 
common  masses.  Already  the  status  of  the  work 
ing  classes  is  greatly  improved  through  a  persist 
ent,  costly  struggle  against  the  misused  power  of 
capital;  wages  have  been  increased,  hours  short 
ened,  and,  in  the  near  future,  we  may  expect  the 
triumph  of  industrial  democracy,  a  triumph  which 
will  secure  for  labor  the  deserved  right  of  industrial 
copartnership.  Already  the  status  of  the  women 
has  been  greatly  improved  by  their  emancipation 
from  the  traditional  and  social  bondage  under 
which  they  suffered  so  long.  Political  rights  have 
been  greatly  enlarged,  and  universal  manhood 
suffrage  is  now  within  view.  The  educational 
system,  too,  has  just  been  revised,  rendering  its 
spirit  a  great  deal  more  liberal  than  ever  before. 
In  this  way,  though  the  road  is  yet  long  and  un 
certain,  true  liberalism  in  Nippon  at  last  stands 
firmly  on  its  ground,  ready  to  march  towards  its 
ordained  goal. 


32      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

Such  a  great  social  innovation  is  but  a  concrete 
expression  of  changes  that  are  taking  place  in  the 
underlying  currents  of  thought.  It  indicates  the 
breaking  up  of  classic  systems  of  moral  and  politi 
cal  philosophy,  which  by  dint  of  age-long  prestige 
had  never  ceased  to  exercise  a  strong  influence 
upon  the  minds  of  the  people.  It  discloses  the 
bankruptcy  of  that  German  idealism  which  so 
precisely  fitted  in  with  the  d,  priori,  passive,  spirit 
ual  temper  of  the  people  but  which  proved  hopeless 
in  the  face  of  vital  problems  of  life  and  society. 
It  means  the  exposure  of  the  inadequacy  of  Eng 
lish  utilitarianism,  with  its  over-emphasis  on 
individualism,  to  help  the  people  effectually  to 
solve  many  difficulties  of  society.  The  changes 
now  taking  place  in  Japanese  thought  imply  the 
failure  of  those  philosophies  which  belittle  the 
value  of  the  material,  slight  the  position  of  man 
kind  in  the  universe  and  fail  to  satisfy  man's 
inherent  craving  for  ceaseless  progress.  The  new 
direction  of  Japanese  thought  is  decidedly  towards 
pragmatic  humanism  at  its  best,  with  due  em 
phasis  on  the  importance  of  the  practical  and 
social  phases  of  life,  enriched  with  the  spirit  of  a 
sentimental  delicacy  and  an  aesthetic  proclivity 
singularly  characteristic  of  the  people. 


CHAPTER  III 
JAPAN'S  ASIATIC  POLICY 

COLONEL  THEODORE  ROOSEVELT  once 
remarked  to  one  of  the  authors  of  this  book, 
with  his  accustomed  emphasis  and  gesture:  "The 
United  States'  proper  sphere  is  in  this  hemisphere; 
Japan's  proper  sphere  is  in  Asia."  With  this  text 
the  great  statesman  was  propounding  an  idea  of 
deep  political  significance.  What  is  suggested  by 
the  text  is,  of  course,  not  that  either  of  the  two 
nations  should  resume  its  traditional  policy  of 
isolation  or  confine  its  activities  within  the  specified 
zones,  but  rather  it  is  to  the  effect  that  each  should 
know  its  bounds  and  play  the  part  which  destiny 
and  geography  have  assigned  to  it. 

In  further  elucidating  the  same  idea,  in  his  book 
entitled  Fear  God  and  Take  Your  Own  Part, 
Roosevelt  says: 

Japan's  whole  sea  front,  and  her  entire  home  mari 
time  interest,  bear  on  the  Pacific;  and  of  the  other 
great  nations  of  the  earth  the  United  States  has  the 
greatest  proportion  of  her  sea  front  on,  and  the  greatest 
proportion  of  her  interest  in,  the  Pacific,  But  there  is 
3  33 


34      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

not  the  slightest  real  or  necessary  conflict  of  interests 
between  Japan  and  the  United  States  in  the  Pacific. 
When  compared  with  each  other,  the  interest  of  Japan 
is  overwhelmingly  Asiatic,  that  of  the  United  States 
overwhelmingly  American.  Relatively  to  each  other, 
one  is  dominant  in  Asia,  the  other  in  North  America. 
Neither  has  any  desire,  nor  any  excuse  for  desiring,  to 
acquire  territory  on  the  other's  continent. 

President  Roosevelt  had  a  unique  opportunity 
of  making  himself  thoroughly  conversant  with  the 
situation  in  the  Far  East  without  even  setting  foot 
on  the  soil.  The  Portsmouth  Treaty  of  1905,  the 
"Gentlemen's  Agreement"  of  1907,  the  Root- 
Takahira  Agreement  of  1908,  negotiated  on  be 
half  of  America  by  the  able  Secretary  of  State, 
Elihu  Root,  and  the  American  recognition  of 
the  amalgamation  of  Korea  into  the  Japanese 
Empire  in  1910,  are  the  outstanding  acts  of  the 
Roosevelt  administration  wherein  the  foregoing 
idea  has  been  translated  into  deeds.  These 
acts  have  proceeded  from  a  thorough  apprecia 
tion  of  the  history  and  development  of  modern 
Japan.  Nor  did  Colonel  Roosevelt  cease  on  his 
return  to  private  life  to  follow  closely  the  march 
of  events  in  Asia.  He  wrote  many  articles  on 
Far  Eastern  affairs  which  showed  his  remark 
able  grasp  of  the  situation.  No  wonder,  then, 
that  the  Japanese  people  reciprocate  this  generous 
appreciation  by  paying  the  highest  respect  to,  and 


Japan's  Asiatic  Policy  35 

entertaining  a  genuine  admiration  for,  the  late 
American  statesman. 

Korean  Situation. 

Recently  Japan  has  been  made  the  target  of 
attack  from  many  quarters  with  reference  to  her 
Asiatic  policy.  The  Shantung  settlement,  the 
Korean  administration,  and  Japan's  activities  in 
East  Siberia  have  been  severely  assailed  by  her 
critics.  Patriotism  imposes  upon  a  citizen  no  obli 
gation  to  condone  any  mistakes  and  wrongs  which 
his  country  has  committed.  We  deplore  the  gross 
diplomatic  blunder  which  Japan  made  in  1915  in 
her  dealings  with  China,  which,  although  per 
fectly  justifiable  in  the  main  proposals  presented, ' 
had  the  appearance  of  browbeating  her  to  sub 
mission  by  brandishing  the  sword.  We  deplore  the 
atrocities  perpetrated  in  the  attempt  to  crush 
the  Korean  uprisings.  Whatever  may  have  been 
the  advisability  of  adopting  drastic  measures  to 
nip  the  Korean  revolt  in  the  bud,  a  revolt  which, 
if  leniently  dealt  with,  might  have  resulted  in  far 
greater  sufferings  of  the  people;,  it  can  never  be 
proffered  as  a  plea  for  the  committing  of  inhuman 
deeds.  Fortunately,  a  change  of  heart  has  come  to 

1  See  "The  New  Chino- Japanese  Treaties  and  Their  Import," 
by  T.  lyenaga,  in  The  American  Review  of  Reviews,  September, 


36       Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

the  Mikado's  Government,  which,  by  uprooting 
the  militaristic  regime,  is  now  resolutely  introduc 
ing  liberal  measures  and  reforms  in  Korea.  The 
most  significant  of  the  measures  is  the  system  of 
local  self-government  which  has  just  been  in 
augurated.  It  creates  in  the  provinces,  municipali 
ties,  and  villages  of  Chosen  (Korea)  consultative  or 
advisory  Councils  whose  functions  are  to  deliberate 
on  the  finances  and  other  matters  of  public  impor 
tance  to  the  respective  local  bodies.  The  members 
are  partly  elective  and  partly  appointive.  Besides 
these  deliberative  Councils,  there  will  be  estab 
lished  in  each  municipality,  county,  and  island  a 
School  Council  to  discuss  matters  relating  to 
education.  This  is  the  sure  road  to  complete  self- 
government  in  Chosen.  The  same  process  of 
evolution,  which  brought  local  autonomy  and  a 
constitutional  regime  to  Japan  proper,  which  took 
thirty  years  to  perfect,  is  now  being  applied  to  the 
newly  joined  integral  part  of  the  Mikado's  Empire. 
The  step  may  be  slow,  but  the  goal  is  sure.  Korea's 
union  with  Japan  was  consummated  after  the 
bitter  experience  of  two  sanguinary  wars  and  the 
mature  deliberation  of  the  best  minds  of  the  two 
peoples.  Its  revocation  is  out  of  the  question, 
unless  it  is  demanded  in  the  future  for  most  cogent 
reasons.  The  privilege  of  taking  a  hand  in  the 
government  of  the  empire,  however,  should  be 


Japan's  Asiatic  Policy  37 

extended  as  speedily  as  possible  to  its  subjects  in 
the  peninsula. 

Policy  of  Self-Preservation. 

Many  as  are  the  pitfalls  into  which  Japan  has 
fallen  in  pursuance  of  her  Asiatic  policy,  it  may 
confidently  be  asserted  that  the  road  she  has 
trodden  has,  on  the  whole,  been  straight.  She  can 
face  with  a  clean  conscience  the  verdict  of  history. 
When  Far  Eastern  history,  from  the  China- Japan 
War  to  the  conclusion  of  the  Versailles  Treaty,  is 
carefully  examined  and  rightly  understood,  it  will 
be  conceded  that  the  course  which  Japan  has 
adopted,  so  far  as  its  general  principles  are  con 
cerned,  is  the  one  which  any  nation  of  self-respect 
and  right  motive  would  pursue.  Fundamentally 
Japan's  Asiatic  policy  is  the  policy  of  self-preser 
vation,  the  policy  of  defense,  and  never  of  aggres 
sion.  The  Anglo -Japanese  Alliance,  which  was 
and  still  remains  the  cornerstone  of  Japan's  Asiatic 
policy,  was  formed  for  purely  defensive  purposes, 
in  order  to  maintain  peace  in  Asia  and  safeguard 
mutual  interests  vested  therein  of  the  two  Powers. 
Only  the  "inexorable  march  of  events  "  has  brought 
Japan  into  Korea,  Manchuria,  and  East  Siberia. 
None  of  the  statesmen  who  took  part  in  the  Meiji 
Restoration  could  ever  have  dreamed  that  their 
country  would  in  the  course  of  time  be  driven 


38      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

through  sheer  force  of  circumstances  to  plant  its 
flag  on  the  Asiatic  mainland.  It  was  solely  in  self- 
defense  that  Japan  took  up  arms  against  China 
and  Russia.  Once  enmeshed  in  continental  poli 
tics,  however,  it  became  imperative  for  her  to 
take  such  measures  as  would  ensure  and  consoli 
date  the  position  and  gains  that  were  won  through 
enormous  sacrifice  of  blood  and  treasure.  Herein, 
in  short,  is  the  genesis  of  Japan's  present  status 
in  Korea  and  Manchuria. 

Even  at  the  present  time,  the  heavy  arming  of 
Japan  is  a  case  of  necessity,  so  long  as  the  Far 
East  remains  in  such  an  unstable  condition  as 
exists  there  to-day,  and  is  not  free  from  the  menace 
of  the  Bolsheviki,  who,  professing  pacifism,  are  not 
slow  to  emulate  the  military  machine  of  Imperial 
Russia.  Nothing  could  be  more  welcome  to  the 
Japanese  people  than  to  see  the  curtailment  of  their 
naval  and  military  equipments,  for  the  mainten 
ance  of  which  they  have  to  bear  the  burden  of 
crushing  taxes,  and  to  behold  the  day  when  they 
can,  without  fear  of  interference  by  force  of  arms, 
win  their  spurs  in  the  Far  East  by  engaging  in  the 
peaceful  enterprises  of  farming,  trade,  and 
industry. 

Precisely  as  the  position  of  Japan  on  the  Asiatic 
mainland  was  ,he  result  of  arbitrament  by  the 
sword,  drawn  in  response  to  a  challenge  made  by 


Japan's  Asiatic  Policy  39 

others,  and  is  now  upheld  by  the  prestige  of  arms, 
her  Asiatic  policy,  although  conceived  in  self- 
defense,  came  to  assume  in  the  eyes  of  the  outside 
world  a  semblance  of  military  aggrandizement. 
As  a  consequence,  Japan  is  looked  upon  as  a  mili 
taristic  nation,  bent  upon  conquest.  Suspicion 
and  fear  are  thereby  engendered.  This  is,  to  say 
the  least,  extremely  unfortunate.  No  stone  should 
be  left  unturned  to  smooth  the  sharp  edges  cut  by 
this  historical  retrospect  and  to  obliterate  the  un 
pleasant  memories  of  the  past.  No  effort  would  be 
too  great  for  Japan  to  convince  the  world  of  her 
genuine  faith  that  her  future  lies  "not  in  territorial 
and  military  conquest,  but  on  the  water  in  the 
carrying  trade  and  on  land  in  her  commercial  and 
industrial  expansion  abroad."  Her  erstwhile 
failure  to  dispel  the  suspicion  of  the  world  about 
her  intentions  and  to  take  it  into  her  confidence  is 
the  root  of  many  ills  with  which  she  has  been 
afflicted  for  the  past  few  years. 

Shantung  Settlement. 

The  storm  of  criticism  we  have  witnessed  in 
America  about  the  Shantung  settlement  is  a  good 
illustration.  Whatever  part  party  politics  in  the 
United  States  may  have  played  in  raising  the  furor, 
had  Japan  secured  the  complete  confidence  of  the 
American  people,  all  the  eloquence  expended  for 


40      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

the  denunciation  of  the  Shantung  clause  in  the 
Versailles  Treaty  would  surely  have  fallen  on  deaf 
ears.  That  our  judgment  is  not  wrong  is  sus 
tained  by  the  fact  that  the  Portsmouth  Treaty 
evoked  not  a  word  of  protest  in  America.  We 
need  not  remind  our  readers  that  the  Treaty  con 
cluded  through  the  good  offices  of  President  Roose 
velt  and  the  settlement  made  at  Versailles  are  not 
only  based  upon  the  same  principles  but  are  exactly 
identical  in  many  respects,  with  this  most  impor 
tant  exception — namely,  that  the  former  Treaty 
transferred  to  Japan  the  lease  of  the  Kwantung 
territory,  and  she  still  holds  it,  while  in  the  latter 
case  she  pledges  herself  to  relinquish  the  leasehold 
of  Kiaochow,  thereby  restoring  the  complete 
sovereignty  of  China  over  Shantung,  which  had 
been  infringed  upon  by  Germany.  The^Shantung 
settlement  is,  consequently,  of  a  far  greater  ad 
vantage  to  China.  What  Japan  secures  in  that 
province  is  only  the  same  economic  rights  and 
privileges  which  are  enjoyed  by  other  Powers  in 
other  parts  of  China.  There  is,  therefore,  no  jus 
tifiable  ground  for  singling  out  Japan  for  attack 
with  regard  to  the  international  arrangement  now 
in  vogue  in  China.  Were  the  complete  reconstruc 
tion  of  China,  the  re-writing  of  her  history,  to  be 
attempted,  international  justice  would  demand 
that  the  parties  interested  should  all  share  equal 


Japan's  Asiatic  Policy  41 

responsibilities  and  sacrifices.  Discrimination 
against  Japan  alone  is  unjust,  unfair.  The  would- 
be  builders  of  the  new  heaven  and  the  new  earth 
can  ill  afford  to  lay  the  cornerstone  of  their  edifice 
on  such  an  unsafe  and  unlevel  ground.  Manifestly, 
the  dawn  of  the  millennium  is  still  far  away.  We 
have  to  make  the  best  of  the  world  as  it  is.  To 
ignore  this  fact  is  to  make  the  confusion  in  the 
world  worse  confounded.  As  a  result  of  this  mis 
apprehension  of  history,  the  Shantung  question 
still  remains  in  abeyance,  because  of  China's  refus 
al  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  Japan  for  the  res 
toration  of  Kiaochow,  thus  delaying  perfect  accord 
between  the  two  Oriental  neighbors  whom  destiny 
has  called  to  be  on  the  best  of  terms.  The  fore 
going  interpretation  of  the  Shantung  question  could 
not  in  ordinary  circumstances  have  failed  to  con 
vince  the  practical  American  people  of  the  appropri 
ateness  of  the  Versailles  settlement,  were  they  not 
tempted  to  indulge  suspicions  of  Japan  and,  hence, 
ready  to  be  easily  misled  by  false  stories,  misrepre 
sentations,  and  slanders  concocted  by  her  enemies. 
Rather  unfortunate,  one  is  sometimes  tempted 
to  think,  has  been  the  heading  of  the  clause  in  the 
Versailles  Treaty,  that  has  readjusted  the  German- 
China  Treaty  of  1898  and  its  sequel,  and  disposed 
of  the  rights  and  privileges  Germany  had  secured 
thereby  in  the  province  of  Shantung.  Like  "the 


42      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

three  R's"  and  other  catchwords  tfyat  have  in 
American  history  often  proved  so  powerful  in  mis 
leading  the  people,  so  this  curt  phrase  "Shantung 
clause,"  which  was  seized  on  and  skillfully  utilized 
by  Japan's  critics,  has  been  a  cause  of  mountains 
of  misunderstanding  that  have  crept  into  the 
heads  of  the  American  people,  who,  as  a  rule, 
take  neither  time  nor  pains  to  examine  the  subject 
carefully  and  thoroughly.  As  a  result,  they  im 
agine  that  the  whole  province  of  Shantung  was 
ceded  to  Japan  by  the  Peace  Treaty.  Great, 
indeed,  as  is  this  mistake,  it  would  be  extremely 
difficult  to  correct  it,  as  the  mischief  has  already 
been  done,  except  by  the  actual  restoration  of 
Kiaochow.  Japan  cannot,  of  course,  be  held 
responsible  for  the  misinterpretations  of  other 
people,  but  at  the  same  time  it  would  be  well  for 
her  to  spare  no  effort  to  convince  China  of  the 
wisdom  of  entering  into  negotiations  for  the  re 
covery  of  the  leased  territory,  and,  consequently, 
of  her  complete  sovereignty  over  the  province  of 
Shantung.  Until  this  pledge  is  redeemed,  Japan's 
credit  will  suffer,  and  all  her  pronouncements  on  jus 
tice  and  humanity  fall  flat  on  the  ears  of  the  world. 

Cooperation  with  China. 

While  Japan's  Asiatic  policy  was,  of  course, 
primarily  formulated  to  further  her  own  interests, 


Japan's  Asiatic  Policy  43 

it  has  also  been  inspired  with  the  laudable  ambition 
of  rendering  a  good  record  of  stewardship  over  the 
people  who  have  come  within  the  orbit  of  its  in 
fluence.  No  one  who  knows  the  work  undertaken 
in  Korea  and  South  Manchuria  will  grudge  a 
word  of  praise  for  the  record.  It  has  bestowed 
untold  benefits  on  the  inhabitants.  Theodore 
Roosevelt,  in  reviewing  the  enterprise  of  Japan  in 
Korea,  grew  enthusiastic  over  it.  The  same  story 
is  repeated  in  South  Manchuria,  where  the  South 
Manchurian  Railroad  Company,  acting  as  a  civiliz 
ing  agent,  has  wrought  marvels.  We  should  like  to 
dwell  here  with  patriotic  pride  on  these  reforms 
and  undertakings  in  some  detail,  were  they  not 
out  of  place  in  this  book. 

Commendable  as  are  these  civilizing  measures 
adopted  by  Japan,  the  fact  remains  that  she  has 
signally  failed  in  one  great  essential,  namely,  in 
winning  the  good  will  and  friendship  of  her  neigh 
bors.  This  is  the  weakest  spot  in  the  armor  of  her 
Asiatic  policy.  She  is  thereby  jeopardizing  her 
future.  The  sentiment  of  good  will  is  as  much  a 
fact,  though  imponderable,  as  any  other  fact,  and 
is  a  force  of  immense  consequence.  How  vital  this 
moral  asset  is  to  Japan  can  easily  be  gauged  when 
we  consider  that  in  her  neighboring  lands  are  found 
the  indispensable  materials  for  her  industrial  ex 
pansion  and  the  best  market  for  her  commerce. 


44      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

Japanese  leaders  are  thoroughly  aware  of  the 
importance  of  this  moral  asset,  and  have  done  all 
that  they  could  to  secure  it. 

The  failure  to  win  it  is  partly  due  to  the  petti 
ness  of  Japanese  officialdom,  so  bitterly  complained 
of  by  Laf  cadio  Hearn  with  his  fine  poetical  irony— 
the  pettiness  which  tries  to  bring  everything 
within  its  prescribed  order  and  does  not  allow  free 
play  to  the  idiosyncrasies  and  peculiar  characteris 
tics  of  other  peoples.  No  less  responsible  are  the 
shortsightedness  of  Japanese  nationals,  their  too 
great  eagerness  to  accomplish  things  within  a 
short  time,  their  haughtiness  and  overbearing 
manners,  which  are  decidedly  offensive  to  their 
neighbors.  The  fault,  however,  is  not  Japan's 
alone.  There  are  tremendous  difficulties  which 
confront  her  in  the  way  of  winning  the  friendship 
of  her  neighbors.  The  first  to  reckon  with  are  their 
weak  and  unstable  qualities,  which  have  so  sadly 
but  too  clearly  been  shown  by  their  incapacity  to 
organize  a  strong  nation  or  to  put  their  house  in 
order.  To  deal  with  these  neighbors  is  no  easy 
task.  It  requires  the  highest  statesmanship.  The 
task  is  made  difficult  a  hundredfold  by  the  coun 
teracting  influences  exerted  on  Japan's  neighbors, 
as  they  are  in  the  vortex  of  international  rivalry. 
And  not  all  foreigners  are  the  friends  of  Japan. 
There  is  a  considerable  number  of  those  who  enter- 


Japan's  Asiatic  Policy  45 

tain,  for  one  reason  or  another,  a  dislike  of  the 
Island  Empire,  and  ceaselessly  labor  to  defeat  its 
purpose.  They  paint,  either  wittingly  or  unwit 
tingly,  every  act  of  Japan  so  maliciously  that  it 
instills  fear  and  hatred  of  her  among  her  neighbors. 
Undiscriminating  and  unfair  attacks  of  Japan's 
critics  play  into  the  hands  of  the  jingoistic  ele 
ments  in  the  countries  concerned  and  make  the 
task  of  the  liberals  extremely  difficult.  Whatever 
the  obstacles,  however,  they  must  be  surmounted, 
for  the  future  road  to  tread  is  clear.  Japan's 
salvation,  together  with  that  of  her  neighbors,  lies 
in  their  genuine  friendship  and  cooperation. 

Understanding  with  America. 

A  brief  review  of  Japan's  Asiatic  policy  was 
deemed  advisable  in  connection  with  the  discus 
sion  of  the  Japanese-California  problem  in  order  to 
see  how  Japan  proposes  to  solve  the  question  of 
human  congestion  at  home  and  to  meet  her  other 
urgent  needs.  The  succeeding  chapters  will  show 
what  an  unparalleled  predicament  Japan  is  facing. 
Circumscribed  within  a  narrowly  limited  area,  only 
1 6  per  cent,  of  which  is  fit  for  cultivation,  and 
crowded  with  two  thirds  as  many  people  as  the 
entire  population  of  the  United  States,  with  an 
annual  increase  at  the  rate  of  seven  hundred  thou 
sand,  Japan  must  perforce  find  a  way  whereby  her 


46      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

people  may  live  contentedly  and  develop  robustly. 
Emigration  and  industrial  expansion  are  mani 
festly  the  exits  from  the  dilemma  of  slow  strangula 
tion.  Emigration,  however,  is  found  a  difficult 
exit,  for  the  Japanese  find  themselves  barred  from 
the  most  favorably  placed  lands  of  the  earth. 
Australia,  Canada,  and  the  United  States,  with 
their  vast  lands  yet  sparsely  peopled,  and  their 
immense  resources  left  unexploited,  while  wel 
coming  every  race  and  creed  of  Europe,  shut  their 
doors  against  the  Japanese. 

Japan  has  acquiesced  without  much  ado  in  the 
restrictive  immigration  measures  adopted  by 
America  and  by  British  colonies  from  the  higher 
consideration  of  international  comity.  She  saw 
that  there  lies  at  the  bottom  of  these  measures  the 
delicate  question  of  race  difference,  which  requires 
a  long  period  for  its  proper  adjustment.  To  ignore 
this  fact  and  force  the  race  issue,  however  just  in 
principle,  would  be  to  court  disaster.  It  might 
result  in  the  loss  of  friendship  of  her  best  as 
sociates  in  international  affairs  and  of  the  vital 
interests  involved  in  that  friendship.  At  the  same 
time,  the  "Gentlemen's  Agreement"  which  Ja 
pan  has  entered  into  is  evidence  of  her  sin 
cere  solicitude  to  avoid  embarrassment  of  her 
friends  by  the  influx  of  an  alien  race.  It  is  then 
but  just  that  they  reciprocate  the  courtesy 


Japan's  Asiatic  Policy  47 

by    a    sympathetic    understanding    of    Japan's 
difficulties. 

Barred  in  the  east  and  south,  it  is  natural  for 
Japan  to  strive  to  find  room  and  employment  for 
the  surplus  of  her  population  in  her  neighboring 
lands — the  sparsely  peopled  Manchuria,  Mon 
golia,  and  East  Siberia.  Climate,  cheap  and  effi 
cient  native  labor,  and  the  unfavorable  economic 
conditions,  however,  preclude  the  immigration  in 
large  numbers  of  Japanese  laborers  into  these 
regions.  Only  by  building  up  large  plants  and 
inaugurating  big  agricultural  enterprises,  in  co 
operation  with  the  natives,  could  Japan  hope  to 
transplant  in  these  lands  some  portion  of  her  skilled 
laborers  and  traders.  During  the  stay  of  a  decade 
and  a  half  in  South  Manchuria,  limited  as  it  was 
until  the  conclusion  of  the  China-Japan  Treaties  of 
1915  to  the  Kwantung  territory  and  the  railway 
zones,  Japan  can  count  therein  as  colonists  only  a 
little  over  150,000  of  her  sons  and  daughters.1 

The  only  alternative  which  remains  and  which 
is  the  most  feasible  proposition  to  absorb  the 
energies  of  her  crowded  population  is  found  in  her 

1  According  to  the  result  of  the  census  taken  on  October  I, 
1920,  the  Japanese  population  of  South  Manchuria  stands  at  154,- 
998  souls.  Of  this  total,  those  living  at  Dairen  number  63,745; 
Fushun,  12,659;  Mukden,  12,268;  Port  Arthur,  9379;  Antung, 
7057,  and  Anshan,  6678,  while  those  resident  in  the  jurisdiction 
of  Kwantung  Province  number  74,893. 


48      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

commercial  and  industrial  expansion.  Here  again, 
however,  she  is  terribly  handicapped,  as  we  shall 
see  in  the  next  chapter,  by  the  conspicuous  ab 
sence  and  scarcity  of  raw  materials  indispensable 
for  industrial  development.  Fortunately,  in  the 
territories  of  her  neighbors — China  and  East  Si 
beria — there  are  vast  stores  of  these  materials  un 
touched  and  unused,  the  unfolding  of  which  will 
not  only  meet  her  wants,  but  will  equally  benefit 
her  neighbors.  The  supreme  importance  of  win 
ning  their  good  will  thereby  becomes  accentuated 
a  thousandfold,  for  without  their  willing  coopera 
tion  nothing  can  be  accomplished.  In  the  par 
ticipation  of  the  benefits  accruing  from  the  de 
velopment  of  her  neighbors'  natural  resources 
Japan  need  not  ask  for  special  privileges.  The 
faithful  and  effective  execution  of  the  "open 
door"  policy  is  all  she  requires.  Here  she  stands 
on  common  ground  with  Occidental  Powers.  She 
entertains  no  fear  of  the  outcome  of  the  "open 
door"  policy,  for  she  is  in  a  position  to  secure 
every  advantage  accruing  from  its  operation. 

Japan's  Proper  Sphere  of  Activity. 

As  Colonel  Roosevelt  pointed  out,  "Japan's 
proper  sphere  is  in  Asia, "  and  it  is  but  proper  that 
her  activities  therein  develop  in  intensity  and 
vigor.  She  is  entitled  to  use  every  peaceful  and 


Japan's  Asiatic  Policy  49 

legitimate  means  that  is  open  to  her  for  the  ex 
tension  of  her  influence  in  the  Far  East,  for  it  is 
there  that  she  can  assure  herself  of  her  right  to  live. 
America  and  Great  Britain,  while  reserving  to 
themselves  the  right  of  opening  or  closing  their 
own  doors  to  the  Japanese,  will  not  be  playing  a 
fair  and  even  game  if  they  grudge  to  recognize  this 
fact.  In  the  strict  adherence  on  the  part  of  Japan 
to  the  spirit  which  gave  birth  to  the  "  Gentlemen's 
Agreement,"  and  in  the  just  appreciation  on  the 
part  of  America  of  Japan's  difficulties  at  home  and 
abroad,  lies  one  of  the  fundamentals  of  an  equit 
able  solution  of  the  Japanese-California  problem.  ^ 


CHAPTER  IV 

BACKGROUND   OF  JAPANESE  EMIGRATION 

Causes  of  Emigration  and  Immigration. 

DIVERSE  as  are  the  causes  that  induce  emi 
gration  and  invite  immigration,  the  most 
fundamental  of  all,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
extraordinary  cases,  such  as  that  of  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers,  is  economic  pressure.  There  is  a  close 
relationship — a  mutual  give  and  take — between 
the  immigrants  and  those  who  receive  them. 
Generally  speaking,  human  activities  have  their 
main-spring  in  man's  desire  to  improve  his  condi 
tions  of  living.  The  motive  which  induces  the 
people  of  one  country  to  go  out  and  settle  in 
another  country  is  the  same  as  the  motive  which 
induces  another  people  to  invite  immigrants  from 
other  countries.  True,  in  the  former  case,  the 
direct  reason  for  the  move  is  generally  the  over 
crowding  and  poor  natural  environment  at  home. 
In  the  latter  case,  it  is  the  lack  of  man -power  and 
the  presence  of  great  unexploited  natural  re 
sources.  But  in  both  cases  the  real  motive  is  the 
pursuit  of  interest,  which  may  be  reciprocally 

50 


Background  of  Japanese  Emigration    51 

promoted  by  the  transaction.  It  is  well  to  keep 
this  point  clearly  in  mind  at  the  outset,  because 
much  of  the  confusion  in  discussing  the  Japanese 
problem  in  California  arises  from  forgetting  the 
real  cause  which  brought  Japanese  immigrants  to 
America  and  which  induced  America  to  invite 
them. 

During  the  early  colonial  period  the  American 
colonies  invited  refugees  from  political  and  religious 
oppression  to  come  and  settle  in  the  new  world  of 
freedom  and  democracy.  The  remnant  of  this 
early  spirit  still  remains  embodied  in  the  present 
immigration  laws  of  the  United  States.  Neverthe 
less,  it  is  almost  a  dead  letter,  with  great  historic 
interest  but  with  no  practical  significance.  -i-The 
real  motive  for  welcoming  immigrants  has  been 
the  acquisition  of  man-power  for  the  exploitation 
of  vast  natural  resources  and  for  the  development 
of  industry.  This  is  a  fact  which  may  be  observed 
in  almost  all  "new  worlds,"  including  the  South 
American  republics,  Canada,  and  Australia,  where 
the  dearth  of  human  energy  is  the  capital  reason  of 
slow  economic  development.  With  settlers,  how 
ever,  the  economic  motive  is  not  the  only  one, 
though  it  is  predominant.  Here  the  motives  are 
diverse  and  complicated.  With  the  Japanese 
there  are  particular  causes  which  have  been  driving 
them  to  seek  opportunities  in  new  worlds. 


52      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

Japan's  Land  Area. 

^-j-The  first  and  foremost  cause  is  Japan 's  limited 
and  unresourceful  land.  The  land  area  of  Japan 
Proper  is  147,655  square  miles,  which  is  about  8,000 
square  miles  less  than  that  of  California.  The 
terrain  of  Japan  is  mountainous  and  volcanic, 
being  traversed  by  two  chains  of  mountains.  One 
runs  down  from  Saghalien  towards  the  center  of 
Honshu  and  the  other  from  China  via  Formosa 
headed  towards  the  north,  both  meeting  at  the 
middle  of  Honshu,  thereby  producing  rugged  up 
heavals  popularly  known  as  "the  Japanese  Alps." 
Being  thus  rocky  and  mountainous,  the  area  con 
tains  a  very  small  portion  of  plain  land.  Hokkaido, 
the  extreme  northern  island,  has  seven  plains. 
Honshu,  the  main  island,  has  between  the  moun 
tains  five  small  plains,  and  Kyushu,  the  large 
southern  island,  has  one.  The  total  area  of  plains 
forms  about  one  fourth  of  the  entire  area  of  Japan. 
The  consequence  of  this  geological  formation  is 
that  about  16  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  is  fit  for 
cultivation,  while  over  70  per  cent,  of  it  is  made  up 
of  mountains  and  forests. 

Agriculture. 

The  Japanese  having  always  been  primarily 
farmers,  agriculture  still  remains  the  principal 
occupation  of  the  people.  More  than  half  the 


Background  of  Japanese  Emigration     53 

population  is  earning  a  livelihood  wholly  or  par 
tially  by  agricultural  pursuits,  '^f  he  large  number 
of  farmers  and  the  small  amount  of  agricultural 
land  allotted  to  them  has  given  rise  to  the  most 
intensive  cultivation,  which  probably  has  no 
parallel  in  the  world.  Nearly  five  and  a  half 
million  families,  or  thirty  million  people,  cultivate 
fifteen  million  acres,  which  means  less  than  three 
acres  per  family,  and  half  an  acre  per  individual 
farmer.  It  is  little  wonder  that  the  law  of  diminish 
ing  return  has  long  been  operating,  rendering  the 
agricultural  pursuit  less  and  less  remunerative, 
driving  farm  hands  to  industry  and  other  work. 
The  average  daily  wage  of  the  farm  laborer  was 
56  sen  in  1917,  while  that  of  the  industrial  laborer 
was  I  yen.1 

In  recent  years  the  Government  undertook  a 
thorough  examination  of  the  tillable  land  in  the 
country  and  reported  as  a  result  that  there  is  yet  a 
possibility  of  reclaiming  about  five  million  acres. 
By  way  of  experiment,  the  Government  began, 
with  the  approval  of  the  4ist  Session  of  the  Diet 
(1918-19),  to  undertake  the  work  of  partial  rec 
lamation  of  seven  hundred  thousand  acres  on  a 
nine-year  program,  with  an  outlay  of  some  four 
million  yen.  It  is  yet  uncertain  how  the  enterprise 
will  turn  out ;  but  it  is  fairly  doubtful,  in  view  of  the 

1  One  dollar  U.  S.  currency  is  approximately  two  yen. 


54      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

fact  that  already  the  land  is  utilized  almost  to  the 
limit  of  cultivation,  including  narrow  back  yards 
and  rugged  hillsides,  as  well  as  sandy  beach, 
whether  the  program  can  materially  increase  the 
present  amount  of  farm  acreage. 

Parallel  with  the  effort  to  extend  the  tillable 
land,  everything  has  been  done  to  increase  the 
productivity  of  the  soil  under  cultivation.  Thanks 
to  the  application  of  scientific  methods  in  agricul 
ture  and  the  use  of  fertilizer,  the  average  yield  of 
all  crops  per  acre  has  increased  since  1894  by  about 
35  per  cent.  But  experts  assert  that  owing  to  the 
excessive  employment  of  land  the  soil  now  indicates 
signs  of  exhaustion,  and  that  accordingly  any 
further  increase  of  productivity  cannot  be  hoped 
for.  On  the  contrary,  the  tendency  will  be  toward 
a  gradual  decrease  of  productivity  in  the  future. 
This  is  a  grave  forecast  for  Japan,  and  makes  that 
country  dependent  more  and  more  upon  the  food 
supply  from  abroad.  The  average  yield  of  staple 
crops  in  Japan  during  the  past  few  years  com 
prises:  barley,  nine  million  koku  (a  koku  is 
approximately  five  bushels);  rye,  seven  million 
koku;  wheat,  five  million  koku;  millet,  four 
million  koku,  and  rice,  the  most  important  crop, 
fifty-two  million  koku.  The  crops  are  far  from 
being  sufficient  to  feed  a  population  of  fifty-five 
millions,  and  Japan  buys  annually  millions  of  koku 


Background  of  Japanese  Emigration    55 

of  staple  food  from  abroad.  Taking  rice,  for  in 
stance,  the  average  annual  consumption  is  fifty- 
eight  million  koku,  which  exceeds  by  six  million 
koku  the  average  annual  yield  of  Japan,  so  that 
the  deficiency  is  made  up  by  imports  from  Korea, 
China,  and  India. 

.^-Naturally,  the  Japanese,  being  very  good 
farmers  and  fond  of  agriculture,  and  yet  having 
so  small  a  prospect  of  success  at  home,  look  with 
eager  eyes  for  an  opportunity  to  cultivate  land 
abroad.  In  the  north  there  are  the  vast  plains  of 
Manchuria;  towards  the  south  the  fertile  soil  of 
Australia;  in  the  east,  California  and  Hawaii 
appear  to  offer  golden  opportunities  for  industrious 
farmers.  Manchuria,  however,  turned  out  to  be 
too  cold,  and  competition  there  with  cheap  Chinese 
labor  proved  unprofitable.  Australia,  from  the 
beginning,  never  welcomed  the  yellow  races. 
Only  Hawaii  and  California  seemed  in  all  respects 
satisfactory  for  Japanese  emigration.  Hence, 
large  numbers  of  Japanese  farmers  migrated  to 
these  places  during  the  years  between  1891  and 
1907. 

Population. 

-r Another  big  factor  of  Japanese  emigration  is  the 
overcrowded  status  of  the  home  population. 
Strangely,  during  the  three  centuries  of  national 


56      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

isolation,  Japan's  population  remained  fairly 
static,  varying  only  slightly  around  twenty-six 
millions.  A  reasonable  explanation  of  this  peculiar 
phenomenon  may  be  found  in  the  rigid  social 
structure  of  feudalism,  which  allowed  no  swelling 
of  population  beyond  a  certain  number.  Malthus- 
ian  factors,  such  as  pestilence  and  famine,  as  well 
as  artificial  means  of  control,  operated  in  effectively 
thwarting  the  increasing  forces  of  population. 

When,  however,  feudalism  was  at  last  destroyed 
and  in  its  place  were  established  new  forms  of 
political  and  social  systems  which  were  much 
more  liberal  and  advanced,  the  population  sud 
denly  began  to  swell  at  a  tremendous  rate.  The 
advent  of  Occidental  enlightenment  which  went 
far  to  improve  the  economic  conditions  of  the 
country,  and  hence  the  conditions  of  living  among 
the  people,  greatly  encouraged  the  rapid  multipli 
cation  of  the  number  of  people.  Within  the  last 
fifty  years  the  population  of  Japan  has  nearly 
doubled,  increasing  from  thirty  millions  to  fifty- 
five  millions.  At  the  present  time  the  population 
is  increasing  at  the  rate  of  650,000  to  700,000  per 
annum  within  Japan  proper  alone.  The  census 
taken  on  October  I,  1920,  shows  the  total  popula 
tion  of  the  Mikado's  Empire  as  totalling  77,005,510, 
of  which  that  of  Japan  proper  is  55,961,140. 

The  significance  of  Japan's  population  cannot  be 


Background  of  Japanese  Emigration     57 

appreciated  unless  it  is  considered  in  connection 
with  her  land.  The  total  area  of  Japan  proper 
we  have  seen  to  be  147,655  square  miles  and  the 
population  close  to  56,000,000.  That  is  to  say,  the 
number  of  inhabitants  per  square  mile  is  380. 
This  is  rather  a  high  figure  when  compared  with 
that  of  other  countries.  Germany  with  her  dense 
population  counted,  in  1915,  319  per  square  mile; 
France  had  191,  America  31  (1910),  India  and 
China,  famous  for  density,  had  populations  enu 
merated  respectively  at  1 58  and  100.  Great  Britain 
has  rather  a  dense  population  (370  per  square  mile) , 
but  she  has  vast  colonies,  the  population  of  which 
is  extremely  thin.  This  comparison  of  the  number 
of  people  per  square  mile  does  not  tell  the  true 
story  until  the  quality  and  resources  of  each  square 
mile  are  also  compared.  It  has  already  been  made 
clear  that  only  16  per  cent.,  or  fifteen  million  acres, 
of  the  land  of  Japan  proper  is  tillable.  This  gives 
only  one  quarter  of  an  acre  of  agricultural  land  per 
capita  of  population.  In  Great  Britain  agricultural 
land  occupies  77  per  cent,  of  the  total  area ;  in  Italy, 
76  per  cent. ;  in  France,  70  per  cent,  and  in  Germany 
65  per  cent. 

Industry. 

Handicapped  as  she  is  in  agriculture,  and  hold 
ing  on  the  other  hand  a  vast  and  ever-increasing 


58      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

population,  the  best,  in  fact  the  only,  policy  for 
Japan  to  follow  has  been  to  utilize  her  vast  man 
power  for  the  development  of  industry.  Firmly 
convinced  that  the  future  of  Japan  depends  solely 
on  her  ability  to  stand  in  the  world  as  an  industrial 
nation,  the  far-sighted  statesmen  of  Japan  long  ago 
formulated  plans  for  a  steady  industrial  expansion. 
These  plans  were  furthered  by  Government 
subsidy  and  have  been  faithfully  carried  out 
step  by  step  by  the  authorities.  The  creation  of  a 
vast  merchant  marine;  the  building  of  railroads 
throughout  the  country,  closely  knitting  all  parts 
of  the  empire  together;  the  enactment  of  a  care 
fully  drafted  protective  tariff;  the  national  and 
municipal  monopolization  of  public  utilities  and 
important  industries ;  the  establishment  of  a  stable 
financial  system  with  facilities  for  financing  heal  thy 
enterprises;  the  establishment  of  technical  schools 
throughout  the  empire  for  the  training  of  experts 
and  skilled  workmen,  and  thousands  of  other  re 
markable  undertakings  were  accomplished  within 
a  very  short  time  by  the  direct  and  indirect  efforts 
of  the  State. 

The  people,  too,  were  not  behind  in  their  devo 
tion  to  the  cause  of  making  Japan  an  industrial 
power.  They  toiled  most  willingly  under  all  kinds 
of  disadvantages  and  hardships;  they  shouldered 
extortionate  taxes  with  smiling  faces ;  they  worked 


Background  of  Japanese  Emigration     59 

in  unison,  disregarding  for  the  time  being  petty 
private  interests ;  they  calmly  and  bravely  met  all 
privations  and  adversities.  There  is  little  wonder 
indeed  that  Japan  established  herself  within  only 
a  few  decades  as  an  industrial  nation  of  the  first 
rank. 

In  order  to  get  a  general  idea  of  Japan's  indus 
trial  strides,  a  few  figures  will  perhaps  suffice. 
Take,  for  instance,  the  number  of  factories.  There 
was  not  one  factory,  properly  so-called,  in  the 
country  at  the  time  of  the  Restoration  in  1868;  as 
late  as  1885  there  were  but  496  industrial  com 
panies,  joint  stock  or  partnership,  with  a  total 
capital  of  seven  million  yen.  In  the  year  1900, 
however,  there  were  7000  typically  modern  fac 
tories,  and  this  number  rapidly  multiplied,  subse 
quently  reaching  over  25,000,  with  billions  of 
paid-up  capital.  The  number  of  factory  operatives, 
too,  correspondingly  multiplied  during  that  period. 
Less  than  500,000  twenty  years  ago,  they  now  total 
1,500,000.  The  increase  in  the  output  of  produc 
tion  and  multiplication  of  various  kinds  of  indus 
tries  has  been  particularly  phenomenal.  In  the 
textile  industry  the  production  has  increased  more 
than  300  per  cent,  during  the  past  twenty 
years,  cotton  yarn  having  increased  from 
30,000,000  kan  (one  kan  is  approximately  equal 
to  8.27  pounds  avoirdupois)  in  1900  to  100,000,000 


60      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

kan;  and  in  the  silk  textiles  from  2,500,000  kan  to 
7,500,000  kan.  In  cloth  fabrics,  similarly  the  value 
turned  out  in  silk  weaving  increased  from  $42,000,- 
ooo  to  $100,000,000;  in  cotton  weaving  from 
$30,000,000  to  $200,000,000  between  the  years 
mentioned.  The  corresponding  increase  of  output 
has  been  realized  in  almost  all  established  indus 
tries,  and  the  same  ratio  obtains  in  the  many  new 
industries  which  have  sprung  up  in  recent  years- 
Generally  speaking,  the  industry  of  Japan,  which 
was  established  on  a  firm  footing  by  the  year  1900, 
has  trebled  during  the  last  twenty  years. 

The  World  War,  too,  by  absorbing  for  military 
purposes  all  the  energies  of  the  belligerent  Powers 
in  Europe  and  America,  was  greatly  instrumental 
in  stimulating  the  industrial  growth  of  Japan,  who, 
after  accomplishing  her  allotted  task  at  the  initial 
stage  of  the  great  conflict,  was  thereafter  called 
upon  by  her  Allies  to  do  her  utmost  in  supplying 
their  urgent  needs  in  ships  and  industrial  products. 

The  development  of  industry  naturally  accom 
panies  a  similar  expansion  in  commerce.  The 
total  amount  of  foreign  trade,  which  started  with 
the  meager  sum  of  $13,000,000  in  1868,  jumped 
to  about  $250,000,000  in  1900,  and  in  1920  reached 
$2,124,000,000.  That  is,  within  the  past  twenty 
years  only,  Japan 's  foreign  trade  increased  roughly 
ten  times,  and  during  the  past  fifty  years  163  times. 


Background  of  Japanese  Emigration     61 

Yet,  with  all  this  remarkable  development,  the 
future  of  Japanese  manufactures  does  not  allow 
unqualified  optimism.  In  several  important  re 
spects  the  foundation  of  Japan's  industrialism  is 
seriously  hampered.  In  the  first  place,  the  supply 
of  raw  material  is  pitifully  meager.  With  the 
exception  of  silk,  Japan  has  in  store  hardly  any 
raw  material  worthy  of  mention.  She  produces  no 
wool  or  cotton  and  has  only  a  limited  store  of  iron. 
With  the  exception  of  coal,  in  which  alone  she  is 
fairly  independent — at  least  for  the  present — 
Japan  depends  for  these  indispensable  factors  of 
modern  industry  mostly  on  foreign  supply.  Scarc 
ity  of  iron,  in  particular,  is  a  notable  weakness  of 
Japan  as  an  industrial  nation. 

The  many  mistakes  Japan  made  in  her  labor 
policy,  which  were  the  inevitable  outcome  of  the  ex 
treme  difficulty  she  confronted  in  adjusting  the 
sudden  transition  from  the  Feudal  regime  to  the 
modern  industrial  stage,  must  also  be  counted  as 
a  cause  in  retarding  the  progress  of  her  industry. 
Due  to  exceedingly  low  wages,  long  working  hours, 
and  lack  of  adequate  protection  of  labor  from 
exploitation,  the  man-power  of  Japan  has  been 
greatly  lavished  and  wasted.  The  paternal  social 
systems  inherited  from  the  feudal  days  long  re 
fused  to  allow  the  voice  of  the  working  classes  to 
be  heard  and  to  give  them  freedom  to  improve 


62      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

their  status.  Strikes  and  labor  unions,  whatever 
their  motive  and  character,  have  always  been 
frowned  upon  in  Japan.  It  is  by  no  means  too 
much  to  say  that  the  present  development  of 
Japan's  industry  has  been  achieved  largely  by  the 
costly  sacrifice  of  health  and  the  rights  of  millions 
of  laboring  men  and  women.  Considering  how 
costly  was  the  present  achievement  of  industry, 
there  remains  some  doubt  as  to  how  far  Japan  can 
carry  on  its  progress  in  the  future. 

It  may  seem  that  the  development  of  industry 
must  have  brought  a  marked  improvement  in  the 
standard  of  living  of  the  masses.  Such,  however, 
is  not  the  case.  It  has  indeed  immensely  swelled 
the  pockets  of  plutocrats,  but  has  not  much  bene 
fited  the  rank  and  file.  While  the  income  of  the 
lower  classes  has  not  increased  to  any  large  extent, 
the  cost  of  living  has  gone  up  by  leaps  and  bounds, 
aggravating  the  severity  of  their  struggle. 

When  both  farming  and  manufacturing  failed 
successfully  to  cope  with  the  ever-increasing  popu 
lation,  the  only  alternative  for  the  Japanese  was  emi 
gration.  Among  the  students,  the  talk  of  another 
alternative,  namely  birth-control,  is  becoming  a  fad. 

Social  Factors. 

-{'Besides  the  economic  reasons  so  far  discussed 
there  are  social  reasons  which  induce  Japanese 


Background  of  Japanese  Emigration    63 

youths  to  go  abroad.  Socially  an  old  country  like 
Japan  contains  a  vast  accumulated  crust  of  custom 
and  tradition  which  refuses  to  adapt  itself  to  the 
changing  conditions  and  ideals  of  the  age,  and 
which,  therefore,  is  objectionable  to  the  younger 
generation  who  know  something  of  the  value  of 
freedom  and  democracy.  Again,  the  national 
conscription  for  military  service  is  becoming  in 
creasingly  distasteful  to  the  youths  of  individualis 
tic  inclination.  It  is  but  natural,  in  the  face  of 
such  powerful  and  numerous  fetters  which  obstruct 
the  free  development  of  lives  and  personalities, 
that  the  young  people  of  Nippon  should  seek 
opportunities  abroad. 

All  these  factors  above  described  would  not 
have  constituted  the  effective  motive  forces  for 
Japanese  emigration  had  it  not  been  for  the  as 
sumed  external  advantages.  Attractive  narra 
tives  in  which  some  of  the  new  countries,  more 
especially  America,  were  represented  as  places 
where  economic  opportunities  are  really  boundless 
and  where  an  ideal  state  of  freedom  and  democ 
racy  prevails,  took  an  exaggerated  form  in  the 
imagination.  The  glaring  contrast  which  the 
visualized  America  presents  with  the  actual  Japan 
stimulates  the  desire  of  young  men  to  turn  to 
America  and  try  their  fortunes. 


CHAPTER  V 

ATTEMPTS  AT  EMIGRATION:  RESULTS 

THE  history  of  Japanese  emigration  began  only 
a  few  decades  ago.  Immediately  after  the 
conclusion  of  treaties  with  the  Western  Powers 
many  Japanese  youths  were  sent  abroad  to  acquire 
advanced  Occidental  knowledge.  A  number  of 
adventurous  persons  and  travelers  also  knocked 
at  the  doors  of  western  countries,  but  they  were 
not  immigrants.  Real  immigration  movement 
did  not  start  until  the  facts  of  other  countries 
became  more  or  less  known ;  until  the  colossal  task 
of  economic  and  social  ''revolutions"  was  well 
started;  until  the  influence  of  European  imperial 
ism  began  to  take  root  in  the  empire.  Then  came 
a  brief  period  of  "emigration  fever"  towards  the 
end  of  the  eighties,  lasting  some  twenty  years. 
What  follows  is  a  brief  history  of  the  various  at 
tempts  made  by  Japanese  to  emigrate  into  differ 
ent  countries,  and  the  results  of  the  experiment. 

Australia. 

Because   of   the    geographical    proximity   and 
alluring  temptations  that  the  vast  uncultivated 

64 


Attempts  at  Emigration :  Results       65 

lands  and  rich  natural  resources  presented,  Aus 
tralia  was  the  place  which  early  attracted  the 
Japanese.  A  few  hundreds  of  them  began  to 
migrate  to  several  colonies,  chiefly  to  Queensland, 
New  South  Wales,  and  Victoria.  But  they  soon 
found  the  conditions  exceedingly  uncomfortable, 
owing  to  the  hostile  feeling  already  prevalent  there 
against  the  Asiatics.  The  Australian  fear  of  an 
influx  of  Asiatic  races  was  early  aroused  by  Chinese 
immigrants,  who,  as  early  as  1848,  attained  a 
sufficient  number  to  cause  agitation  and  race  riots 
in  several  colonies.  These  colonies  subsequently 
enacted  rigorous  anti-Asiatic  immigration  laws 
restricting  the  number  of  immigrants  admitted 
per  annum  to  a  few  hundred.  Since  then,  filled 
with  the  fear,  real  or  imaginary,  of  a  menace  of 
Asiatic  inundation  from  across  the  equator,  where 
one-half  of  the  planet's  population  live  congested 
on  one-tenth  of  the  total  area  of  the  earth,  the  great 
task  of  Australia  during  the  last  sixty  years  has 
been  to  keep  the  country  clear  of  Asiatics. 

The  immigration  policy  of  the  Commonwealth 
of  Australia  presents  perhaps  the  most  clear-cut 
and  radical  example  of  racial  discrimination. 
While,  on  the  one  side,  she  spares  neither  effort  nor 
money  to  attract  and  welcome  white  settlers,  on 
the  other  side  she  leaves  no  stone  unturned  to 
exclude  all  Asiatic  immigrants.  With  an  im- 


66      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

mensely  large  area — about  50,000  square  miles 
more  extensive  than  that  of  the  United  States — 
yet  almost  untouched,  and  a  population  less  than 
that  of  the  City  of  New  York,  Australia  really 
needs  farmers,  artisans,  and  all  other  classes  of 
people.  It  is  the  function  of  the  Commonwealth 
Department  of  Home  and  Territories  to  advertise 
in  Europe,  through  lectures,  films,  exhibitions,  and 
posters,  for  the  purpose  of  inviting  laborers  and 
settlers  to  Australia.  Each  State  of  the  Common 
wealth  has  extended  assistance  in  money  and 
privilege  to  hundreds  of  thousands  of  European 
immigrants.  The  cause  for  lamentation  by  the 
government  is  that  with  all  this  effort  and  sacrifice 
she  has  not  been  successful  in  getting  any  con 
siderable  number  of  people  as  settlers. 

Unsuccessful  in  attracting  white  settlers,  she 
has  been  most  successful  in  repelling  the  yellow 
race.  She  has  an  immigration  law  which  requires 
immigrants  to  pass  a  dictation  test — a  test  in 
writing  of  not  less  than  fifty  words  of  a  European 
language — which  is  dictated  to  them  by  an  officer. 
Examination  in  a  European  language  for  the 
Asiatics!  And  what  is  more,  the  Europeans  are 
exempt  from  it.  The  law  provides,  furthermore, 
that  Asiatic  immigrants  may  be  required  to  pass 
a  test  at  any  time  within  two  years  after  they  have 
entered  the  Commonwealth.  Even  for  the  recep- 


Attempts  at  Emigration :  Results      67 

tion  of  those  Asiatics  who  have  been  lawfully  ad 
mitted,  some  of  the  States,  New  South  Wales, 
Queensland,  South  Australia,  and  Tasmania  in 
particular,  do  not  allow  them  the  right  of  owning 
or  leasing  land,  under  the  pretext  that  they  are 
not  eligible  to  citizenship.  The  Commonwealth  of 
Australia  does  not  extend  the  right  of  naturaliza 
tion  to  Asiatics.  No  wonder,  then,  that  there  is 
only  a  handful  of  Orientals  in  that  vast  country — 
35,000  Chinese  and  some  5000  Japanese. 

Canada. 

Until  recent  years,  no  record  was  kept  of  the 
number  of  Japanese  immigrants  arriving  in  Canada 
and  consequently  the  development  of  the  move 
ment  cannot  be  accurately  traced.  The  Canadian 
census  of  1901  shows  that  4674  persons  born  in 
Japan  were  in  the  Dominion  at  that  time;  4415 
were  in  the  Province  of  British  Columbia,  the  rest 
being  scattered  in  the  Provinces  of  Manitoba, 
Saskatchewan,  and  Alberta.  After  that  year  the 
number  of  Japanese  immigrants  coming  to  Canada 
gradually  increased,  and  when  the  United  States 
placed  restrictions  on  the  influx  of  Japanese  from 
Hawaii,  and  the  latter  began  to  seek  entrance  into 
Canada,  the  number  grew  considerably  and  soon 
caused  serious  concern  to  the  people  of  Western 
Canada.  It  was  estimated  that  in  1907  the  Jap- 


68      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

anese  domiciled  in  Canada  had  reached  eight 
thousand.  Determined  opposition  soon  arose 
among  the  western  provinces,  and  protests  were 
sent  by  the  Canadian  Government  to  Hawaii  and 
Tokyo  requesting  them  to  control  the  sudden 
immigration  tide.  An  agreement  was  reached  in 
1908  between  Japan  and  Canada  by  which  the 
number  of  passports  to  be  granted  in  any  one  year 
to  Japanese  emigrating  to  Canada  was  limited  to 
four  hundred.  In  this  way  the  question  was 
satisfactorily  settled. 

Canada's  treatment  of  the  Asiatic  races  lawfully 
admitted  has  been  marked  by  leniency.  She  has 
extended  to  the  Orientals  the  privilege  of  naturali 
zation  and  of  securing  homesteads.  Even  in 
British  Columbia,  the  center  of  anti-Oriental  agita 
tion,  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  are  permitted  to 
conduct  business  and  cultivate  land  on  an  equal 
basis  with  British  subjects  in  Canada.  They  may 
own  land,  both  urban  and  rural,  and  in  prov 
inces  other  than  British  Columbia  they  are  en 
titled  to  voting  privileges  when  naturalized ;  only 
in  that  province  the  Orientals  are  not  allowed 
to  cast  ballots,  though  free  to  become  citizens. 
It  is  reported  that  there  are  13,823  Japanese 
residing  in  Canada  to-day,  engaged  in  fishing 
and  logging  and  sawmill  industries,  as  well  as  in 
agriculture. 


Attempts  at  Emigration :  Results      69 

South  America. 

For  some  years  past  a  number  (about  six  thou 
sand)  of  Japanese  immigrants  has  been  sent  every 
year  to  Brazil  in  compliance  with  the  request  of 
the  Republic.  They  have  been  mostly  engaged  on 
coffee  plantations  in  Sao  Paulo.  The  coloniza 
tion  is  still  in  an  experimental  stage,  and  it  is  a 
little  premature  to  forecast  its  future  at  this 
time.  Altogether  about  twenty  thousand  Japa 
nese  immigrants  have  gone  to  the  South  American 
Republic. 

The  United  States. 

Perhaps  attracted  by  the  wonderful  stories  of 
the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  or 
possibly  cast  ashore  in  boats  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
of  America,  there  seem  to  have  lived  in  the  early 
sixties  in  California  about  a  hundred  Japanese. 
Early  California  papers  record  the  story  of  quaint- 
looking  Japanese  settlers,  who  were  received  with 
great  favor.  Although  accurate  records  are  lack 
ing,  it  would  seem  that  the  number  of  Japanese 
did  not  begin  to  increase  until  the  late  eighties, 
when  a  few  hundred  began  to  come  in  eveiy 
year.  The  census  of  1890  reported  the  number  of 
Japanese  residents  as  2039.  From  that  time  on 
the  number  of  immigrants  steadily  increased, 
reaching  the  highest  mark  in  1907,  when  about 


7O      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

ten  thousand  of  them  entered  continental  America 
in  one  year. x 

The  direct  incentive  for  Japanese  emigration 
was  furnished  by  a  few  large  emigration  com 
panies,  3  which  were  formed  with  a  view  to  supply 
ing  contract  labor  to  Hawaii  and  America,  where 
the  demand  for  labor  was  insatiable.  In  the 
former  case,  the  rapid  growth  of  the  sugar  planta 
tions  demanded  a  large  supply  of  cheap  labor. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  need  for  cheap  labor  was 
urgent,  due  to  the  enactment  of  the  Chinese  Ex 
clusion  Law  in  1882,  which  soon  began  to  effect 
a  decrease  in  the  number  of  Chinese  laborers,  re 
sulting  in  a  dearth  of  labor  on  the  farms  and  in 
railroad  work.  It  was  in  response  to  the  urgent 
demand  of  capitalists  and  landowners  in  Hawaii 
and  America  for  Japanese  labor  that  the  emigra 
tion  companies  sprang  into  existence  with  the 
object  of  facilitating  the  complex  process  of 
immigration. 

The  Japanese  coolies  so  brought  in  were  wel 
comed  and  prosperous — at  least  for  a  while.  Their 
industry  and  frugality  won  them  the  confidence 
of  their  employers.  In  agriculture,  in  railroad- 
building,  in  mining  and  fishing,  they  proved  useful 

JFor  a  complete  tabulation  of  Japanese  immigration  see 
appendix  F. 

2 Tokyo  Emigration  Co.,  Toyo  Emigration  Co.,  were  the  most 
conspicuous. 


Attempts  at  Emigration:  Results      71 

hands.  They  saved  money  and  remitted  to  their 
native  country  a  considerable  portion  of  it.  Some 
of  them  returned  home  with  a  fortune  and  a  de 
gree  of  refinement  which  a  superior  environment 
could  bestow  upon  a  laborer.  These  incidents 
stimulated  the  desire  of  ambitious  Japanese  to 
leave  for  and  work  in  California  and  Hawaii,  and 
the  number  of  applicants  for  emigration  greatly 
multiplied. 

In  the  meantime,  between  1895  and  1900, 
changes  had  taken  place  in  the  attitude  of  the 
people  of  California  toward  the  Japanese.  For 
various  reasons  the  friendly  feeling  of  the  Califor- 
nians  was  gradually  replaced  by  a  more  or  less 
hostile  sentiment.  It  so  happened  that  just  about 
this  time  California  was  the  stage  for  a  struggle 
between  organized  labor  and  capital.  It  was  with 
a  great  deal  of  effort  and  sacrifice  that  the  or 
ganized  labor  of  California  succeeded  in  excluding 
the  Chinese  coolies.  But  their  hard-won  victory 
was  shattered  to  pieces  by  the  advent  of  Japanese 
laborers,  whom  capital,  taking  advantage  of  their 
ignorance  of  American  customs  and  language, 
wisely  utilized  as  a  powerful  weapon  to  defeat  the 
unions.  To  the  union  men  it  made  no  difference 
whether  the  strike-breakers  were  Chinese  or 
Japanese ;  whether  strike-breaking  was  voluntarily 
or  unwittingly  performed;  they  were  enemies  just 


72      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

the  same.     The  cry  for  exclusion  was  a  natural 
consequence. 

Then  there  also  seems  to  be  some  truth  in  the 
report1  made  in  1908  by  W.  L.  Mackenzie  King, 
the  Deputy  Minister  of  the  Government  of  Can 
ada,  which  states  that  it  is  suspected  that  much  of 
the  anti- Japanese  agitation  in  California  was  de 
liberately  fermented  by  the  interests  of  the 
Planters'  Association  of  Honolulu,  who,  alarmed 
by  the  tendency  of  Japanese  laborers  engaged  on 
the  sugar  plantations  to  seek  work  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  of  America,  where  wages  were  much  better, 
started  a  campaign  to  check  the  exodus  by  causing 
ill  feeling  toward  the  Japanese  along  the  Pacific 
Coast.  The  report  states  in  part- 

It  is  believed  .  .  .  that  the  members  of  the  Asiatic 
Exclusion  League  in  San  Francisco  were  not  without 
contributions  from  the  Association's  incidental  ex 
pense  fund,  to  assist  them  in  an  agitation  which  by 
excluding  Japanese  from  the  mainland  would  confine 
that  class  of  labor  to  the  islands,  to  the  greater  ec 
onomic  advantage  of  the  members  of  the  Association. 2 

For  these  two  chief  reasons,  and  perhaps  for 
many  other  minor  ones,  there  arose  the  persistent 
social  movement  for  Japanese  exclusion  in  Cali- 

1  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  methods  by  which  Oriental  laborers  were  induced  to  come  to 
Canada  in  1909. 

3  Report  as  cited,  p.  54. 


Attempts  at  Emigration :  Results       73 

forma,  which  first  took  definite  shape  in  1900, 
when  a  mass- meeting  held  at  San  Francisco 
for  the  express  purpose  of  more  rigidly  ex 
cluding  the  Chinese,  adopted  a  resolution  urging 
Congress  to  take  measures  for  the  total  ex 
clusion  of  Japanese  other  than  members  of  the 
Diplomatic  Staff.  Following  this  came  the  first 
of  the  anti-Japanese  messages  delivered  by  the 
Governor  of  California,  and  of  the  resolutions 
voted  on  by  the  State  Legislature  calling  upon 
Congress  to  extend  the  Chinese  Exclusion  Law  to 
other  Asiatics.  The  climax  of  the  movement  was 
reached  when,  immediately  after  the  earthquake, 
the  Board  of  Education  of  San  Francisco  passed 
the  "separate  school  order, "  and  Japan  protested. 
A  series  of  diplomatic  negotiations  followed,  which 
finally  resulted  in  the  repeal  of  the  school  dis 
criminatory  order  and  the  conclusion  of  the 
"Gentlemen's  Agreement,"  whereby  Japan 
pledged  herself  to  restrict  the  number  of  immi 
grants  to  the  United  States. 

Leaving  to  a  later  chapter  the  detailed  discussion 
of  the  result  which  the  "Gentlemen's  Agreement" 
has  brought  about  in  the  status  of  Japanese  immi 
gration,  it  will  suffice  to  mention  here  that  the 
agreement  has  faithfully  and  loyally  been  carried 
out  by  Japan,  and  that  since  then  the  Japanese  prob 
lem  has  in  fact  ceased  to  be  an  immigration  issue. 


74      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

Results. 

Twenty  years  of  emigration  attempts,  chief  of 
which  we  reviewed  in  this  chapter,  have  resulted  in 
failure  in  every  case,  and  Japan's  effort  to  plant 
her  race  in  other  lands  has  proved  futile.  There 
are  many  causes  for  this  failure,  for  which  Japan  is 
partially,  but  not  wholly,  responsible.  But  this  is 
a  matter  which  we  shall  more  fully  discuss  in  the 
next  chapter.  Excluded  and  maltreated  wherever 
they  went,  the  Japanese  returned  home  with 
shattered  hopes  and  wounded  feelings,  and  the 
mooted  question  of  population  once  more  con 
fronted  them  with  intensified  severity.  Giving  up 
as  entirely  hopeless  the  attempt  at  settling  in 
places  where  the  white  races  held  supremacy,  they 
now  appear  to  have  made  up  their  minds  to  migrate 
towards  the  north,  where  climatic  and  economic 
disadvantages,  together  with  political  revolution 
in  Eastern  Europe,  have  freed  the  land  tempor 
arily  from  the  strong  white  grip,  offering  the  line 
of  least  resistance  for  Japanese. 


CHAPTER  VI 

CAUSES  OF  ANTI- JAPANESE  AGITATION 

Modern  Civilization. 

THE  major  cause  of  the  agitation  against 
Japanese  in  California  must  be  attributed  to 
modern  civilization,  which,  with  scientific  devices, 
has  conquered  time  and  space  and  thereby  de 
stroyed  the  high  walls  of  international  boundaries. 
Indeed,  had  it  not  been  for  the  steamboat,  rail 
road,  telegraph,  and  other  civilized  instruments, 
which  bind  the  nations  of  the  world  into  a  com 
posite  whole,  and  modern  industrialism,  which 
civilization  brought  about  and  which  in  turn 
assisted  in  unifying  the  world,  Japan  for  one  would 
have  remained  a  peaceful  hermit  nation,  undis- 
liked  or  unsuspected  by  any  other.  She,  of  course, 
has  no  reason  to  regret  the  adoption  of  European 
culture,  which  brought  her  untold  values  and 
happiness;  but  the  fact  remains  that  the  present 
anti- Japanese  agitation  in  California,  as  well  as 
elsewhere  in  the  world,  would  never  have  occurred 
had  she  not  followed  the  lead  of  Occidental  nations. 
Clearly,  such  a  conflict  is  one  of  the  by-products 
75 


76      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

of  the  complex  international  relations  brought 
about  by  modern  science,  which,  simply  because 
of  the  lack  of  experience  and  regulation  due  to  their 
short  history,  remain  deplorably  defective.  This 
suggests  the  point  already  brought  out  in  our  in 
troduction,  that  the  principle  of  the  solution  of  the 
California  problem  lies  not  in  an  attempt  at  separ 
ating  Japan  and  the  United  States,  which  time 
and  destiny  brought  together,  but  in  a  yet  closer, 
more  regulated  relationship,  and  in  the  promotion 
of  a  better  mutual  understanding. 

Various  Attitudes  Towards  Japanese. 

With  reference  to  the  attitude  toward  the 
Japanese,  it  is  possible  to  discern  four  classes  of 
critics  in  California.  ^There  are  the  veteran  ex- 
clusionists,  whose  only  hope  in  this  world  seems  to 
be  the  realization  of  the  slogan,  "All  Japs  must 
go!"^There  is  the  majority  of  people  which  is  too 
preoccupied  with  its  own  affairs  to  investigate  the 
facts  and  is  ready  to  accept  anything  said  or 
asserted  by  the  exclusionists.  /^Tfhen  there  are 
those,  intellectually  more  critical,  who  hold  in 
dependent  opinions  as  to  why  the  Japanese  must 
be  excluded  ^There  are  also  others  who  stoutly 
oppose,  rationally  or  irrationally,  any  attempt  at 
excluding  the  Japanese. 

The  reasons  offered  for  justifying  the  exclusion 


Causes  of  Anti-Japanese  Agitation      77 

of  the  Japanese  widely  vary  according  to  the  class 
of  people,  and  they  are  often  mutually  contra 
dictory  and  conflicting.  To  those  agitators  whose 
motive  is  purely  self-interest,  agitation  is  a  pro 
fession,  and  hence  it  transcends  the  consideration 
of  justice  or  international  courtesy.  They  have 
no  scruples  about  lying  or  resorting  to  any  means 
which  they  think  would  serve  their  purpose.  The 
masses,  generally  speaking,  accept  what  is  given 
to  them  by  the  agitators,  unthinkingly  echo  their 
voices,  and  so  play  directly  into  their  hands. 
Only  fair,  rational  exclusionists  study  the  facts 
of  the '  case,  consider  the  significance  involved 
therein,  and  present  arguments  supporting  their 
conviction.  It  is  in  this  class  of  people,  and 
not  in  professional  agitators  or  whimsical  popu 
lace,  or  irrational  friends  of  the  Japanese,  that 
the  hope  of  the  solution  of  the  problem  may 
be  found. 

From  the  fact  that  so  much  agitation  is  going 
on  in  California,  some  may  think — especially 
those  in  Japan — that  all  Californians  are  unkind  or 
hostile  to  the  Japanese.  This,  however,  is  far  from 
being  the  case.  It  is  precisely  in  California  that 
the  most  earnest,  devoted  friends  of  the  island 
people  are  found — found  in  great  numbers.1 

1  Those  who  voted  in  the  negative  for  the  initiative  bill  were 
222,086  against  668,483  in  the  affirmative. 


78      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

These  sympathizers  are  wholly  unable  to  share 
the  opinions  of  the  exclusionists,  and  are  simply 
at  a  loss  to  comprehend  the  reason  why  so  much 
fuss  should  be  made  because  of  a  handful  fof 
Japanese  who  compare  favorably  with  European 
immigrants. 

Psychological  Mature  of  the  Cause. 

The  fact  that  right  in  the  midst  of  the  hotbed 
of  the  Japanese  exclusion  movement  there  are 
goodly  numbers  of  unqualified  friends  of  the 
Japanese  suggests  that  the  motives  of  exclusion  as 
well  as  inclusion  are  primarily  personal;  that  is, 
psychological.  We  are  all  human  and  are  prone  to 
pass  judgment  from  personal  incidents  or  experi 
ence.  A  single  disagreeable  experience  with  a 
Japanese  may  drive  a  level-headed  politician  to  a 
frenzy  of  Japanese  exclusion,  just  as  the  memory 
of  one  Japanese  friend  may  make  another  indivi 
dual  a  consistent  advocate  of  a  friendly  attitude 
toward  all  Japanese.  Inevitably  limited  in  the 
scope  of  experience,  we  can  only  generalize  from  a 
few  particulars.  This  is  why  there  are  such  con 
tradictory  attitudes  to  be  found  among  Californi- 
ans  toward  the  same  problem.  In  generalizing 
from  particular  experience  we  are  more  apt  to 
arrive  at  a  conclusion  which  suits  our  desires  and 
emotions.  We  reach  our  conclusions  in  ways  which 


Causes  of  Anti-Japanese  Agitation      79 

we  think  promote  our  interests  and  please  our 
feeling.  Gain  or  loss,  like  or  dislike,  are  two  pivots 
determining  our  judgment.  Those  who  think  they 
gain  from  the  presence  of  Japanese  and  those  who 
like  the  Japanese,  from  whatever  reason,  naturally 
tend  to  welcome  them ;  those  who  feel  the  contrary, 
incline  to  advocate  their  exclusion.  At  bottom, 
therefore,  the  effort  of  discrimination  arises  from 
a  direct  or  indirect  personal  experience  with 
Japanese  which  resulted  in  some  sort  of  an  unfavor 
able  impression. 

Chinese  Agitation  Inherited. 

With  this  preliminary  we  shall  see  what  are  the 
more  obvious  factors  which  give  rise  to  anti- 
Japanese  sentiment  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  It  is 
perhaps  beyond  doubt,  as  most  authorities  insist, 
that  the  Japanese  inherited  the  ill-feeling  that  early 
prevailed  against  the  Chinese,  and  this  for  no  other 
reason  than  that  the  Japanese  are  similar  to  the 
Chinese  in  many  respects  and  were  placed  under 
the  same  conditions  which  caused  hostility  to  the 
Chinese.  We  have  already  discussed  how  the 
Japanese  coolies  were  used  by  capital  as  weapons 
to  pit  against  the  ascendency  of  organized  labor. 
Under  the  general  term  "Asiatics"  the  Japanese 
shared  at  first,  and  later  inherited,  the  painful  ex 
perience  of  the  Chinese. 


8o      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

Local  Politics. 

That  the  Japanese  issue  was  frequently  made  the 
football  of  minor  political  games  in  California  is  an 
undeniable  truth.  Wholly  apart  from  the  con 
sideration  of  right  and  wrong,  we  cite  a  case  of 
political  activity  which  illustrates  such  a  situation. 
Writing  in  the  January  (1921)  issue  of  the  North 
American  Review,  Mr.  R.  W.  Ryder  observes: 

All  during  the  late  war — while  the  Japanese  fleet 
was  protecting  our  commerce  and  other  interests  by 
patrolling  the  Pacific — the  most  cordial  relationship 
existed  between  the  two  peoples.  But  the  Armistice 
had  hardly  been  signed  before  agitation  against  the  Jap 
anese  again  manifested  itself ;  however,  not  until  it  had 
been  resuscitated  and  energized  by  one  of  California's 
United  States  Senators  who  was  soon  to  be  a  candidate 
for  reelection.  This  Senator,  Mr.  Phelan,  appeared  in 
California  early  in  1919,  and  at  once  made  a  visit  to 
the  Immigration  Station  at  San  Francisco  and  Los 
Angeles ;  whereupon  he  issued  a  statement  characteriz 
ing  the  Japanese  situation  as  a  menace.  Next,  he 
addressed  the  State  Legislature  on  the  Japanese  ques 
tion.  Prior  to  his  address,  although  the  Legislature 
had  been  in  session  for  almost  two  months,  it  had  done 
nothing  regarding  the  Japanese.  But  a  few  days 
afterward  several  anti- Japanese  measures  were  in 
troduced.  .  .  . 

The  particular  susceptibility  of  the  Japanese 
issue  to  political  agitation  in  California  may  be 
attributed  to  the  safety  and  advantage  with  which 


Causes  of  An ti- Japanese  Agitation      81 

it  may  be  manipulated.  The  Japanese  in  Cali 
fornia  having  practically  no  vote  are  safe  toys 
for  play.  The  possibility  of  magnifying  the 
"menace"  of  the  Asiatic  "influx"  is  immensely 
tempting  in  this  case,  rendering  it  a  most 
effective  smoke  screen  for  the  tactics  of  private 
interests. 

The  San  Francisco  Chronicle  stated,  in  its  edi 
torial  on  October  22,  1920,  under  the  heading, 
"It  Would  Probably  Have  Been  Settled  without 
Trouble  but  for  Politicians,"  as  follows: 

Had  no  attempt  been  made  to  drag  California's 
Japanese  question  into  politics  we  would  probably 
have  settled  the  question  satisfactorily  and  with  no 
fuss.  .  .  . 

We  think  it  probable  that  if  the  question  had  not 
been  appropriated  by  politicians  seeking  to  make 
capital  for  themselves  it  would  have  been  possible 
to  have  obtained  the  cooperation,  at  least  the  acqui 
escence,  of  the  intellectual  Japanese  leaders  in  the 
State,  in  measures  designed  to  prevent  the  presence  of 
their  countrymen  from  being  or  becoming  an  eco 
nomic  menace  to  California.  .  .  . 

That  the  question  has  been  brought  into  politics, 
where  it  was  not  an  issue  and  could  not  be,  that  it  has 
been  made  a  cause  of  irritation  between  Japan  and 
the  United  States,  and  has  given  Japan  a  lever  to 
use  against  us  in  all  matters  affecting  the  Orient,  is 
due  to  the  senior  Senator  from  California,  who  sought 
to  use  the  problem  to  advance  his  own  personal 
interests. 


82       Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

"  Yellow  Peril." 

The  imaginary  fear  of  an  Asiatic  influx,  cleverly 
fermented  by  agitators,  is  certainly  a  strong  cause 
of  Japanophobia.  Somehow  we  have  a  historical 
fear  of  foreign  invasion.  This  fear  is  inculcated 
and  whetted  among  the  Californians  by  a  hideous 
picture  of  a  Japanese  Empire,  that,  like  medieval 
Mongolia,  would  send  a  storming  army  of  invasion. 
One  might  gather  from  the  reports  of  the  Hearst 
papers  in  California  that  the  Pacific  Coast  of  North 
America  was  invaded  by  a  Japanese  army  on  an 
average  of  once  a  month.  Whether  misled  by 
jingo  journalism  or  aroused  by  the  exaggeration  of 
agitators — whatever  the  cause-— it  is  simply  amaz 
ing  how  large  a  portion  of  the  California  people 
honestly  fear  the  utterly  impossible  eventuality 
of  a  Japanese  invasion. 

Quite  recently  another  form  of  menace  was 
suggested,  which,  because  of  its  more  plausible 
nature,  has  been  widely  circulated.  It  is  the  fear 
based  upon  conjecture  that  the  Japanese  will  soon 
control  the  entire  agricultural  industry  of  Cali 
fornia  and  that  they  will  ere  long  overwhelm  the 
white  population  in  that  State.  This  apprehen 
sion  was  by  far  the  most  effective  force  in  de 
ciding  in  the  affirmative  the  initiative  bill  voted 
on  by  the  California  electorate  on  November 

2,  1920. 


Causes  of  Anti-Japanese  Agitation      83 

Propaganda. 

Propaganda  is  autocratic  power  in  a  democratic 
state;  it  is  a  subtle  attempt  at  controlling  social 
sentiment  by  influencing  the  people's  mind 
through  its  unconscious  entrance.  Freud  teaches 
us  that  each  of  us  is  in  a  sense  a  complex  of  bound 
less  wishes.  We  wish  vastly  more  than  our  en 
vironment  offers  us;  hence,  most  of  our  wishes 
have  to  be  suppressed,  thwarted.  Now,  propa 
ganda  appeals  to  this  weakest  part  of  man;  it 
promises  us  an  opportunity  to  satisfy  our  arrested 
wishes.  "You  are  badly  off,  my  friends, "  a  propa 
gandist  would  say  to  honest  laborers,  "  because  the 
Japs  are  here  to  bid  your  wages  down.  We  are 
trying  to  get  rid  of  them  for  you,  and  for  this  we 
want  your  help."  A  similar  appeal  can  be  made 
with  immediate  good  results  to  almost  all  classes 
of  people  who  have  some  unsatisfied  wish — and  all 
men  do  have  such  wishes. 

Racial  Difference. 

It  is  clearly  untenable,  however,  to  argue  that 
the  Japanese  agitation  in  California  is  wholly  due 
to  imaginary  fear  and  aversion  created  in  the 
minds  of  people  by  politicians  and  propagandists. 
The  Japanese  themselves  are  responsible  for  condi 
tions  which  often  justify  some  of  the  accusations, 
and  which  prompt  exaggeration  and  misrepresen- 


84      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

tat  Jon.  In  the  first  place,  the  Japanese  are  a 
wholly  different  race,  with  different  customs, 
manners,  sentiment,  language,  traditions,  and — not 
of  least  importance — of  different  physical  appear 
ance.  Were  these  differences  merely  in  kind,  they 
would  not  be  very  repugnant,  but  when  such 
differences  involve  qualitative  difference  they  are 
particularly  repulsive.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible 
to  pass  judgment  upon  the  relative  superiority  in 
all  respects  of  things  Occidental  and  Oriental ;  but 
western  civilization  naturally  seems  incomparably 
superior  to  American  eyes.  Mere  difference  of  race 
alone  gives  no  unpleasant  feeling.  When  it  is  also 
a  difference  of  quality,  at  least  in  appearance— 
and  in  this  all  must  agree — it  arouses  our  aesthetic 
repulsion. 

Even  if  a  man  be  of  different  race  and  as  ugly  as 
a  Veddah  from  Ceylon,  if  he  remains  a  solitary 
example,  or  one  of  a  very  limited  number  of  his 
kind,  he  would  not  only  not  arouse  our  antipathy 
but  would  even  stimulate  our  curiosity,  and  many 
of  us  would  spend  money  to  see  his  quaint  customs 
and  manners.  But  when  his  followers  increase  in 
number  and  establish  themselves  in  our  midst,  and 
carry  on  the  struggle  for  existence  until  they  are 
in  the  way  of  fairly  matching  ourselves,  we  begin 
to  be  alarmed  and  unconsciously  learn  to  hate 
them.  This  is  an  exaggerated  illustration,  but  it  is 


Causes  of  Anti-Japanese  Agitation      85 

precisely  the  process  which  has  been  taking  place 
in  California  relative  to  the  Japanese.  The  fact 
that  the  Japanese  are  looked  upon  rather  favor 
ably  in  the  East  is  because  there  they  are  com 
paratively  few  in  number  and  are  not  competitors 
of  the  Americans  in  the  struggle  for  existence. 

Japanese  Nationality. 

To  a  certain  extent,  the  anti- Japanese  sentiment 
in  California  as  well  as  elsewhere  is  accentuated  by 
the  national  principles  of  the  Japanese  Empire. 
It  has  a  system  of  government  which  for  various 
good  reasons  is  unique.  It  embraces  many  points 
that  are  considered,  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  undemocratic.  The  smooth  opera 
tion  of  democracy  has  been  hindered  by  some 
inherent  defect  in  the  national  system,  by  lack  of 
experience  in  representative  government,  and  by 
the  influence  exerted  through  an  unconstitutional 
power  represented  by  the  elder  statesmen.  To 
make  the  situation  worse,  by  means  of  unscrupu 
lous  journalism,  the  American  mind  is  duly  im 
pressed  with  the  assumed  bellicose  and  Prussian 
character  of  the  Japanese  Empire,  the  hatred  of 
which  becomes  anti- Japanese  sentiment  in  general. 

The  Japanese  Government,  again,  adheres  to  a 
policy  of  extreme  paternalism  with  regard  to  her 
colonists  abroad.  It  seems  true  that  in  case  of  an 


86      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

aggressive  and  military  government  it  is  from 
necessity  the  devotee  of  a  pure  race  and  a  solidified 
population,  as  Mr.  Walter  Lippman  stated.1  At 
any  rate,  Japan  does  not  wish  her  subjects  to  be 
naturalized  nor  does  she  encourage  them  to  lose 
their  racial  or  national  consciousness.  This  is 
clearly  seen  in  her  policy  of  dual  nationality 
(which  we  shall  have  occasion  to  discuss  later), 
which  aims  to  retain  the  descendants  of  the  Jap 
anese  who  are  born  in  America,  and  hence  are 
citizens  thereof,  as  subjects  also  of  the  Mikado. 
It  is  likewise  observable  in  the  spirit  of  Japanese 
education,  which  is  fundamen tally  nationalistic, 
as  it  was  referred  to  in  the  second  chapter.  Such  a 
policy  of  nationalism  inevitably  incites  the  sus 
picion  of  countries  to  which  Japanese  immigrants 
go,  and  discourages  the  people  from  making  an 
attempt  at  assimilating  the  Japanese.  This,  to 
gether  with  their  nationalistic  training  and  educa 
tion,  renders  the  assimilation  of  the  Japanese 
exceedingly  difficult. 

Modern  Nationalism. 

What  accentuates  the  difficulty  in  the  situation 
is  that  the  countries  which  receive  such  Japanese 
immigrants  also  uphold  a  policy  of  nationalism, 
which  runs  full  tilt  against  the  ''influx''  of  immi- 

1  Stakes  of  Diplomacy,  by  Walter  Lippman,  p.  40. 


Causes  of  Anti-Japanese  Agitation      87 

grants  who  do  not  readily  become  amalgamated  or 
assimilated.  The  inflow  of  such  a  population,  they 
claim,  threatens  and  endangers  the  unity  of  the  na 
tion,  and  therefore  it  must  be  stopped  or  resisted. 
This  is  the  capital  reason  which  is  being  ascribed 
for  the  discriminatory  effort  against  the  Japanese 
in  California  by  the  leaders  of  the  movement. 

Congestion  in  California. 

The  Japanese,  moreover,  manifest  a  strong 
tendency  to  congregate  in  a  locality  where  they 
realize  a  social  condition  which  is  a  poor  hybrid  of 
Japanese  and  American  ways.  The  tendency  to 
group  together  is  not  a  phenomenon  peculiar  to 
Japanese  immigrants  alone.  Such  a  tendency  is 
manifested  by  almost  all  immigrants  in  America 
in  different  degrees.  In  the  case  of  the  Japanese, 
however,  several  additional  factors  operate  to 
necessitate  their  huddling  together — they  are 
ethnologically  different;  English  is  an  entirely 
different  language  from  theirs;  their  customs  are 
wholly  different  from  those  of  Americans;  their 
segregation  offers  advantages  and  facilities  to  some 
Americans  who  deal  with  them.  The  external 
hostile  pressure  naturally  compresses  them  into 
small  groups.  Whatever  the  cause,  it  is  true  that 
this  habit  of  collective  living  among  themselves 
retards  the  process  of  assimilation,  and,  moreover, 


88       Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

makes  the  Japanese  problem  loom  large  in  the  eyes 
of  the  white  population  living  in  adjoining  places. 

Fear  and  Envy  Incited  by  Japanese  Progress. 

In  addition  to  this,  a  point  to  be  noted  is  the 
increase  in  number  of  Japanese  and  their  rapid 
economic  development  within  the  State  of  Cali 
fornia.  The  question  of  immigration  becomes 
inextricably  mixed  up  in  the  minds  of  the  populace 
with  the  problem  of  the  treatment  of  those  who 
are  already  admitted.  They  act  and  react  as 
causes  and  effects  of  the  agitation.  The  appre 
hension  of  a  Japanese  "influx"  expresses  itself  in 
a  hostile  attitude  toward  the  Japanese  already 
domiciled  there.  Conversely,  the  conflict  arising 
from  the  presence  of  Japanese  in  California 
naturally  prompts  opposition  against  Japanese 
immigration.  Now,  it  so  happened  that  recently, 
and  especially  since  the  war,  the  number  of  Jap 
anese  coming  to  the  United  States  through  the 
California  port  has  decidedly  increased.  This  is 
due  to  the  increased  arrival  of  travelers,  business 
men,  officials,  and  students,  as  a  consequence  of  the 
closer  relationship  between  America  and  Japan, 
as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter.  Nevertheless, 
it  incites  the  fear  of  the  Californians  and  induces 
them  to  adopt  more  stringent  measures  against  the 
Japanese  living  in  that  State, 


Causes  of  Anti-Japanese  Agitation      89 

On  the  other  hand,  the  economic  status  of  the 
Japanese  in  California  has  been  steadily  develop 
ing.  They  are  entering  in  some  directions  into 
serious  competition  with  the  white  race.  Thus, 
in  agriculture,  their  steady  expansion  through  in 
dustry  and  thrift  has  caused  alarm  among  small 
white  farmers.  Added  to  this  is  the  high  birth 
rate  among  the  Japanese,  which,  because  of  their 
racial  and  cultural  distinction,  forms  a  problem 
touching  the  fundamental  questions  of  the  Ameri 
can  commonwealth. 

Summary. 

By  the  foregoing  analysis  of  the  situation,  we 
see  that  although  the  problem  of  the  Japanese  in 
California  has  been  made  the  subject  of  political 
and  private  exploitation,  and  thereby  rendered 
unnecessarily  complicated  and  acute,  it  is,  never 
theless,  a  grave  problem  which  contains  germs  that 
are  bound  to  develop  many  evils  unless  it  is  prop 
erly  solved. 

In  the  following  chapters  we  shall  study  the 
status  of  the  Japanese  in  California  in  respect  to 
population  and  birth  rate,  their  agricultural  condi 
tion,  their  living  and  culture,  and  their  economic 
attainments,  with  a  view  to  elucidating  just 
wherein  lie  the  precise  causes  of  the  difficulties. 


CHAPTER  VII 

FACTS  ABOUT   THE  JAPANESE   IN   CALIFORNIA- 
POPULATION  AND  BIRTH  RATE 

A  KNOWLEDGE  of  the  facts  regarding  the 
Japanese  population  in  California  is  impor 
tant,  because  it  has  been  a  point  of  sharp  dispute 
between  those  who  insist  on  exclusion  and  those 
who  oppose  it,  the  former  arguing  that  the  Jap 
anese  are  increasing  at  an  amazing  rate  through 
immigration,  smuggling,  and  birth,  threatening  to 
overwhelm  the  white  population  in  the  State,  the 
latter  contending  that  they  are  not  multiplying  in 
a  way  menacing  to  the  State  of  California.  The 
fact  that  such  a  dispute  prevails  in  the  matter  of 
the  number  of  Japanese  suggests  that  it  is,  at  least, 
one  of  the  crucial  points  on  which  the  whole  prob 
lem  rests.  This  is  true  in  the  sense  that,  if  the 
Japanese  in  California  were  decreasing  in  number 
as  the  American  Indians  are,  it  would  be  totally 
useless  to  waste  energy  in  an  attempt  to  quicken 
the  final  extinction.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  they 
were  to  multiply  in  a  progressively  higher  rate  so 
as  to  overwhelm  the  white  population,  it  would 

90 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California    91 

certainly  be  serious  both  for  California  and  for  the 
United  States. 

Number  of  Japanese  in  California. 

This  being  the  case,  it  is  but  natural  that 
the  enemies  of  the  Japanese  should  exaggerate 
the  number  of  Japanese  living  in  California.  The 
leaders  of  the  movement  for  excluding  Japanese 
estimate  their  number  as  no  less  than  one  hundred 
thousand.  The  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Con 
trol  of  California,  prepared  for  the  specific  purpose 
of  emphasizing  the  gravity  of  the  Japanese  prob 
lem  in  California,  enumerated  the  population  of 
Japanese  in  that  State  at  the  end  of  December, 
1919,  as  87,279.  This  number  turned  out  to  be 
13>355  higher  than  the  number  reported  by  the 
Foreign  Office  of  Japan,1  which  was  based  on  the 
Consular  registrations  (including  American-born 
offspring  of  the  Japanese)  and  the  count  made  by 
the  Japanese  Association  of  America.  -Most  for 
tunately,  the  preliminary  publication  of  a  part  of 
the  United  States  Census  for  1920  removed  the 
uncertainty  arising  from  the  discrepancy  by  stat 
ing  the  exact  number  of  the  Japanese  in  California 
to  be  70,196.  The  possible  cause  of  the  over- 
estimation  by  the  Board  of  Control  is  to  be  found 

1  Report  published  on  October  5,  1920,  by  the  Bureau  of 
Commercial  Affairs,  Foreign  Office,  Tokyo,  Japan. 


92       Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

in  its  method  of  computation.  Instead  of  counting 
the  actual  number  of  residents,  it  simply  addbd 
the  number  of  net  gain  from  immigration  and  the 
excess  in  birth  over  death  statistics  to  the  returns 
of  the  census  of  1910,  overlooking  the  fact  that  in 
the  meantime  a  great  number  of  Japanese  were 
leaving  California  for  Japan  as  well  as  other 
States  of  the  Union. 

The  present  number  of  Japanese  is  a  minor 
matter  compared  with  its  dynamic  tendency. 
The  rate  of  increase  of  the  Japanese  population 
in  California  in  the  past  may  be  easily  obtained  by 
comparing  the  returns  of  the  United  States  Census. 

The  following  table  indicates  the  number  and 
rate  of  decennial  increase : 

NUMBER   OF   JAPANESE   IN   CALIFORNIA   ACCORDING   TO   THE 
UNITED  STATES  CENSUS. 


Year. 

Number. 

Decennial  Increase. 

Percentage  of 
Decennial  Increase. 

1880 

86 

1890 

i,H7 

1,  06  1 

1,234     % 

1900 

10,151 

9,004 

785     % 

1910 

41,356 

31,205 

307.3% 

1920 

70,196 

28,840 

69-7% 

We  see  from  the  above  table  that  after  half  a 
century  of  Japanese  immigration  to  the  United 
States,  California's  net  gain  amounts  to  a  little 
over  70,000,  the  number  having  increased  at  an 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California    93 


average  rate  of  14,025  per  decade,  or  1603  per 
annum.  We  also  observe  that  the  percentage  of 
decennial  increase  gradually  decreased  from  1234 
per  cent,  to  69.7  per  cent. 

It  is  useful  to  compare  this  development  of  the 
Japanese  population  with  that  of  California  in 
general,  because  it  gives  an  idea  of  the  relative 
importance  of  the  Japanese  increase.  This  is 
shown  in  the  following  table,  in  which  the  de 
cennial  rates  of  increase  between  them  are 
compared : 

COMPARISON  OF  POPULATION  INCREASE  OF  CALIFORNIA  AND  OF 
JAPANESE  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


Year. 

Number. 

Decennial 
Increase. 

Rate  of 
Decennial 
Increase. 

Rate     of 
Japanese 
Decennial 

Percentage  of 
Japanese  to  the 
Total  Popula 
tion  of 

Increase. 

California. 

i860 

86d  604. 

.0099% 

I8QO 

1,213,398 

348,704 

40-3% 

1234     % 

•095    % 

IQOO 
1910 
1920 

1,485,053 
2,377,549 
3,426,861 

271,655 
892,496 

1,049,312 

22.3% 
60.0% 

44-1% 

785     % 
307.3% 
697% 

.68     % 

1-73     % 
2.04     % 

Thus  we  see  that  while  the  percentage  of  de 
cennial  increase  of  Japanese  has  been  fast  decreas 
ing  since  the  census  of  1890,  descending  from 
1234  per  cent,  to  785  per  cent,  in  the  next  census, 
and  to  307.3  per  cent,  in  1910,  and  69.7  per  cent, 
in  1920,  that  of  California  is  headed,  on  the  whole, 
towards  an  increase.  We  also  notice  that  the  per- 


94      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 


centage  of  the  Japanese  population  to  the  total 
population  of  California  also  shows  a  tendency  to 
slow  growth,  increasing  only  three  tenths  of  one 
per  cent,  during  the  last  decade.  As  a  general 
conclusion,  therefore,  we  may  say  that  the  rate  of 
increase  of  Japanese  in  California  is  slowly  de 
clining  while  that  of  the  total  population  of  Cali 
fornia  is  steadily  increasing. 

In  the  next  place,  how  does  the  status  of  the 
Japanese  population  in  California  compare  with 
that  in  the  continental  United  States?  In  the 
following  table,  we  compare  the  rate  of  increase 
in  California  and  the  United  States,  and  enumerate 
the  percentage  of  the  number  of  Japanese  in  Cali 
fornia  to  the  total  number  of  Japanese  in  the 
United  States: 

JAPANESE  POPULATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  CALIFORNIA. 


,i>  tn 

sa 

ijl 

CU  ~ 

3 

a 

ill 

*m 

o£ 

C.SG 

8 

*o—  ^*o 

_»a 

^  S^ 

J^"^^ 

1  1*"1  c 

C  a> 

0) 

Q<u 

^0 

Scs-SS 

1 

S3 

si 

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•£g,2«; 

51! 

«j  O'^3c/3 

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rt-c 

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1880 

id.8 

S8.i% 

1890 

2,039 

1,891 

1,277.7% 

1234.0% 

56.2% 

1900 
1910 
1920 

24,326 
72,157 
119,207 

22,287 
47,831 
47,050 

1,093.0% 
196.6% 
65.2% 

785«o% 

307-3% 
69-7% 

41-7% 
57-3% 
58.8% 

Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California    95 

The  table  indicates  that  the  percentage  of 
Japanese  in  California  to  the  total  number  of 
Japanese  in  the  United  States  is  ratlier  high, 
justifying  the  complaint  of  the  Governor  of  Cali 
fornia  that  during  ten  years,  between  1910  and 
1920,  "the  Japanese  population  in  California 
increased  25,592,  but  in  all  of  the  other  States  of 
the  United  States  it  decreased  10,873.  Perhaps, 
in  this  last-named  fact  may  be  found  the  reason 
that  makes  Oriental  immigration  a  live  subject  of 
continued  consideration  in  California."1 

The  truth  of  this  statement,  which  in  other 
words  means  that  the  cause  of  anti- Japanese  agita 
tion  in  California  is  due  to  congestion  in  that  one 
State,  becomes  almost  indisputable.  It  is  doubly 
apparent  when  we  consider  the  reason  why  the 
Chinese  no  longer  constitute  the  objects  of  ex 
clusion  in  California  while  the  Japanese  do.  The 
Chinese  have  shown,  ever  since  the  launching  of 
the  agitation  against  them  in  the  early  '8o's,  a 
wise  tendency  to  disperse  into  other  States,  thus 
avoiding  conflict  with  the  Californians.  The 
Japanese,  on  the  other  hand,  appear  to  cling 
tenaciously  to  California,  and  the  more  they  are 
maltreated  and  slandered  the  more  steadfastly 
they  remain  in  that  State.  This  is  apparently  due 

1  California  and  the  Oriental,  State  Board  of  Control  of  California, 
p.  30. 


96      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

largely  to  the  recognition  of  the  desirability  of 
California,  even  with  its  handicaps,  over  other 
States,  but  it  is  also  due  to  their  helplessness 
to  extricate  themselves  from  the  situation  in 
fear  of  a  great  financial  loss  involved  in  the 
change. 

The  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Control  of 
California  uses  the  fact  of  the  decreasing  number  of 
Chinese  and  the  increasing  number  of  Japanese  in 
California  as  evidence  of  the  success  of  the  Chinese 
Exclusion  Act  in  accomplishing  its  purpose,  and 
of  the  failure  of  the  "Gentlemen's  Agreement"  in 
restricting  Japanese  immigration.1  But,  in  so 
doing,  it  fails  to  take  into  consideration  the  very 
fact  which  it  points  out  elsewhere,  which  we  have 
just  quoted ;  namely,  that  the  number  of  Japanese 
has  decreased  in  all  of  the  other  States  combined 
while  it  has  increased  in  California.  It  also  fails  to 
take  into  account  the  fact  that  the  number  of 
Chinese,  contrary  to  the  Japanese  tendency,  has 
shown  a  marked  tendency  to  grow  in  eastern  and 
middle  western  States  and  to  decrease  in  California. 
Thus,  for  example,  the  number  of  Chinese  in  New 
England,  the  Middle  Atlantic,  and  Eastern  and 
North  Central  States  increased  from  401,  1227, 
and  390  respectively  in  1880  to  3499,  8189,  and 
3415,  respectively,  in  1910,  while  it  decreased  in 

1  California  and  the  Oriental,  p.  27. 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California    97 

the  Pacific  division  from  87,828  to  46,320  in  the 
corresponding  period.1 

The  foregoing  examination  establishes  the  fact 
that  much  of  the  anti- Japanese  agitation  in  Cali 
fornia  is  due  to  the  congestion  of  Japanese  in  that 
one  State,  as  pointed  out  by  the  authorities  of 
California,  and  as  confirmed  by  the  extinction  of 
anti-Chinese  sentiment  in  California,  consequent 
upon  the  exodus  of  large  numbers  of  Chinese  from 
that  State. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Japanese  population  in 
California  increased  from  86  in  1880  to  70,196  in 
1920  at  the  annual  rate  of  1403.  We  shall  now  see 
how  each  of  the  three  factors — lawful  entrance  of 
Japanese  into  the  United  States,  smuggling,  and 
birth — has  contributed  to  this  increase. 

Immigration. 

Without  question,  the  coming  of  the  Japanese 
who  are  legally  permitted  to  enter  the  United 
States  has  been  the  largest  factor  contributing  to 
their  increase  in  California.  Of  the  total  Japanese 
entering  the  continental  United  States  since  its 
beginning  up  to  the  end  of  1920,  estimated  at 
1 80,000, 2  California  claims  to  have  received  about 
two  thirds,3  or  approximately  125,000.  Since 

1  For  detailed  comparison  of  geographical  distribution  of 
Chinese  and  Japanese  see  Appendix  I. 

3  See  Appendix  G.  3  California  and  the  Oriental,  p.  31. 


98      Japan  and  the  California  Problem 


California's  present  Japanese  population  is  70,196, 
of  which  about  25,000 J  are  American-born  children, 
it  means  that  out  of  the  total  number  of  Japanese 
immigrants  (125,000)  who  entered  California,  only 
45,196  survive  now  in  that  State,  the  rest  having 
either  migrated  to  other  States,  or  died  out,  or  re 
turned  home. 

One  reason  why  the  Japanese  immigration  is 
viewed  with  so  much  apprehension  is  because  the 
facts  of  the  situation  are  not  rightly  understood. 
The  number  of  Japanese  coming  to  the  United 
States  has  decidedly  increased  in  recent  years, 
especially  since  the  war,  the  annual  number  reach 
ing  the  ten  thousand  mark.  This  would  certainly 
be  alarming  were  it  not  for  the  correspondingly 
large  number  of  Japanese  who  returned  every 
year.  The  following  table  shows  the  percentage 
of  those  who  returned  out  of  the  total  arrivals : 


Percentage   of   Re 

Year. 

Arrivals. 

Returned. 

turned    Against 

Total  Arrivals. 

1916 
1917 
1918 

9,100 
9,159 
ii,i43 

6,922 
6,58! 
7,696 

76% 

m 

1919 

11,404 

8,328 

73% 

1920 

12,868 

11,662 

90% 

1  Total  number  of  Japanese  born  in  California  so  far  is  approxi 
mately  30,000,  of  which  about  5000  have  either  died  or  live  in 
Japan. 

a  Annual  Report  of  Commissioner-General  of  Immigration. 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California    99 

The  growing  number  of  Japanese  coming  into 
America  and  the  increasing  high  rate  of  their 
return,  as  shown  in  the  above  table,  clearly  in 
dicate  the  fact  that  the  character  of  the  Japanese 
now  entering  the  United  States  has  decidedly 
changed.  The  explanation  of  the  high  rate  of 
Japanese  entrance  is  to  be  sought  in  the  growing 
business,  diplomatic,  intellectual,  and  other  rela 
tions  between  America  and  Japan  which  the  recent 
war  brought  about.  In  the  field  of  business,  the 
number  of  branch  offices  of  Japanese  firms  employ 
ing  Japanese  clerks  and  managers  rapidly  increased 
in  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States.  Students 
who  formerly  went  to  Europe  for  study  now  flock 
to  America  and  enter  the  large  universities  of  this 
country.  Many  of  the  newly  rich  whom  the  unique 
opportunity  of  the  World  War  has  created,  have 
taken  it  into  their  heads  to  see  the  post-war 
changes  in  America  and  Europe.  But  these 
Japanese  visitors  are  not  immigrants ;  they  are  not 
coolies;  they  do  not  come  to  America  to  work 
and  settle.  They  will  give  America  no  trouble, 
for  they  stay  in  this  country  only  a  brief  period  of 
time.  They  are  America's  guests,  as  it  were,  and 
they  should  not  be  treated  as  immigrants.  The 
rough  handling  of  these  visitors,  as  sometimes 
happens  in  the  Western  States,  gives  them  a  bad 
impression  of  the  American  people  at  large. 


ioo    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 


That  most  of  the  Japanese  now  coming  to  this 
country  are  temporary  visitors  is  shown  by  the 
following  table  which  distinguishes  non-laborers 
from  laborers : 


Year. 

Total. 

Laborers. 

Non-Laborers. 

Percentage  of  Non- 
Laborers  Against  All. 

1916 
1917 
1918 

9,  ioo 

9,159 

2,956 
2,838 
2,604 

6,144 
6,321 
8,539 

77 

% 

"Gentlemen's  Agreement." 

It  is  useful  to  remember  the  above  fact  when 
discussing  the  workings  of  the  so-called  "Gentle 
men's  Agreement."  It  is  often  alleged  that  Japan 
has  not  been  observing  the  agreement  in  good 
faith.  Thus  Governor  Stephens  states: 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  the  intent  of  our 
Government  by  this  agreement  (the  "Gentlemen's 
Agreement")  to  prevent  the  further  immigration  of 
Japanese  laborers.  Unfortunately,  however,  the 
hoped-for  results  have  not  been  attained.  Without 
imputing  to  the  Japanese  Government  any  direct 
knowledge  on  the  subject,  the  statistics  clearly  show  a 
decided  increase  in  Japanese  population  since  the  exe 
cution  of  the  so-called  "Gentlemen's  Agreement." 
Skillful  evasions  have  been  resorted  to  in  various 
manners. 

Such  an  accusation  appears  plausible  when  it  is 
examined  solely  in  the  light  of  the  high  number  of 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  161 

annual  Japanese  arrivals.  The  accusation,  how 
ever,  falls  to  the  ground  when  we  consider  two 
other  facts  already  pointed  out;  namely,  the 
correspondingly  high  and  ascending  rate  of  de 
partures,  and  the  increasingly  high  percentage  of 
non-immigrants  against  immigrants. 

It   is   provided    in    the    "  Gentlemen's  Agree 
ment"  that  "the  Japanese  Government  shall  issue 
passports  to  the  continental  United  States  only 
to  such  of  its   subjects  as  are  non-laborers,   or 
are  laborers  who  in  coming  to  the  continent  seek 
to  resume  a  formerly-acquired  domicile,  to  join  a 
parent,  wife,  or  children  residing  here,  or  to  assume 
active  control  of  an  already  possessed  interest  in  a 
farming  enterprise  in  this  country."    Accordingly, 
the  classes  of  laborers  entitled  to  receive  passports 
have  come  to  be  designated  " former  residents," 
"parents,  wives,  or  children  of  residents,"   and 
"settled  agriculturists."    Of  these,  the  last  item, 
the  "settled  agriculturists,"  has  practically  no 
significance,  because  under  that  class  only  four 
entered  America  since  the  conclusion  of  the  agree 
ment.    According  to  the  agreement,  then,  only  two  . 
classes  of  immigrants,  former  residents  and  the  » 
families  of  residents,  are  admitted. 

This  agreement  leaves  the  question  of  the  ad 
mittance  of  non-laborers  entirely  untouched, 
permitting  the  Japanese  Government  to  decide 


102    Japan -and  the  California  Problem 

as  to  who  may  be  classed  laborers  and  who 
non-laborers.  The  lack  of  concrete  under 
standing  between  Japan  and  the  United  States 
in  this  respect  is  a  grave  defect  in  the  agree 
ment.  True,  the  executive  orders  issued  in 
connection  with  the  "Gentlemen's  Agreement" 
provide  a  definition  of  term  "laborer,"  and 
state: 

For  practical  administrative  purposes,  the  term 
"laborer,  skilled  and  unskilled,"  within  the  meaning 
of  the  executive  order  of  February  24,  1913,  shall  be 
taken  to  refer  primarily  to  persons  whose  work  is 
essentially  physical,  or,  at  least,  manual,  as  farm 
laborers,  street  laborers,  factory  hands,  contractors' 
men,  stablemen,  freight  handlers,  stevedores,  miners, 
and  the  like,  and  to  persons  whose  work  is  less  physical, 
but  still  manual,  and  who  may  be  highly  skilled  as 
carpenters,  stone  masons,  tile  setters,  painters,  black 
smiths,  mechanics,  tailors,  printers,  and  the  like;  but 
shall  not  be  taken  to  refer  to  persons  whose  work  is 
neither  distinctively  manual  nor  mechanical  but  rather 
professional,  artistic,  mercantile,  or  clerical — as  phar 
macists,  draftsmen,  photographers,  designers,  sales 
men,  bookkeepers,  stenographers,  copyists,  and  the 
like.1 

The  weakness  of  the  provision,  however,  is  in 
the  difficulty  it  gives  rise  to  in  practical  applica- 

1  Immigration  Laws — Rules  of  November  75,  IQII,  published 
by  U.  S.  Department  of  Labor,  Bureau  of  Immigration,  March  10, 
1913- 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  103 

cation  and  in  the  liability  of  wrong  construction 
to  be  placed  by  the  American  public  in  the  ad 
ministration  of  the  " Gentlemen's  Agreement." 
The  difficulty  lies  not  at  all  in  the  lack  of  mutual 
understanding  between  the  American  and  the 
Japanese  Governments  in  respect  to  this  question. 
The  modus  operandi  arrived  at  between  these  two 
Governments  has  worked  satisfactorily.  But  be 
cause  of  the  lack  of  a  specified  definition  of  "non 
immigrants"  and  "immigrants,"  the  distinction 
to  be  made  between  them,  and,  consequently, 
the  granting  of  passports,  as  already  stated,  is 
left  in  a  large  measure  to  the  discretion  of  the 
authorities  of  the  Foreign  Office  of  the  Japanese 
Government. 

The  foregoing  defect  and  the  confusion  on  the 
part  of  the  American  people  suggest  that  the 
adoption  of  a  specific  definition  of  "immigrants" 
and  "non -immigrants" — in  other  words,  laborers 
and  non -laborers — on  the  basis  of  whether  a 
person  is  coming  to  America  for  work  and  set 
tlement  or  for  a  temporary  visit,  seems  quite 
essential. 

The  Japanese  method  of  distinguishing  non 
immigrants  from  immigrants,  however,  has  not 
been  altogether  irrational  or  arbitrary.  The  es 
tablished  custom  is  that  the  Government  issues 
two  kinds  of  passports,  one  with  a  lavender  color 


104    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

design  on  the  front  page  with  the  word  "  non 
immigrant"  stamped  on  it,  and  the  other  with  a 
green  color  design  with  the  word  "immigrant" 
printed  on  the  front  page.  The  former  is  given 
to  those  who  desire  to  go  to  America  for  busi 
ness,  educational,  or  traveling  purposes,  expect 
ing  to  return  home  after  a  brief  stay,  and  who 
have  strong  financial  assurance.  The  latter  pass 
ports,  namely,  the  immigrant's,  are  given  to  those 
who  are  entitled  to  enter  America,  according  to 
the  already  specified  provisions  of  the  "Gentle 
men's  Agreement, "  viz.  " former  residents, "  "par 
ents,  wives,  or  children  of  residents,"  and  "set 
tled  agriculturists."  The  passports,  however,  are 
not  granted  even  to  these  classes  unless  they  file 
a  petition  to  the  Government  with  a  certifi 
cate  from  a  Japanese  Consulate  in  America  cer 
tifying  the  breadwinner  in  America  to  be  an 
honest  man,  with  a  clean  record,  who  is  capa 
ble  of  comfortably  supporting  a  family.  In  this 
way,  although  without  a  definite  standard  of  reg 
ulation,  the  Japanese  Government  faithfully  ad 
heres  to  the  provisions  of  the  agreement,  even 
to  the  point  of  being  charged  with  an  extreme 
rigidity.  The  following  table  given  in  the  Report 
of  the  Commissioner-General  of  Immigration 
shows  in  detail  how  the  agreement  has  been 
operating : 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  105 


JAPANESE    LABORERS    ADMITTED    TO    CONTINENTAL    UNITED 
STATES  1910  TO  1919. 

According  to  Annual  Report  of  Commissioner-General  of 
Immigration. 


In  possession  of  proper  pass 

ports.     Entitled    to   pass 

ports  under  "Gentlemen's 

Agreement." 

Fiscal  Year 

11 

I 

i 

i 

Ending  June. 

£ 

w 

2 

0 

w 

s 

^  O 

•a 

•*•" 

9 

1 

^o 
M 

1 

I 

0) 

111 

•O 

JU 

"o  & 

jj5 

^a 

1 

to 

* 

1 

* 

^ 

h 

I9IO 

245 

373 

j 

47 

39 

705 

I9II 

351 

268 

88 

25 

732 

1912 

602 

224 

60 

27 

913 

1913 

,175 

178 

41 

13 

1,407 

1914 

,514 

119 

84 

51 

1,768 

1915 

,545 

585 

I 

54 

29 

2,214 

1916 

,695 

2 

39 

78 

3,013 

1917 

,647 

MI5 

36 

87 

2,885 

1918 
1919 

•774 
,265 

507 
422 

88 
48 

235 
241 

2,604 
1,976 

Total.... 

11,813 

4,990 

4 

585 

825 

18,217 

The  table  indicates  that  out  of  the  total  immi 
gration  of  18,217  from  1909  to  1920,  ii, 813  of  this 
number  were  people  who  temporarily  visited  Japan ; 
4990  belonged  to  the  families  of  residents ;  4  were 
"settled  agriculturists,"  and  585  were  persons  not 
entitled,  for  reasons  unexplained,  to  passports. 
It  also  shows  that  825  were  persons  without  proper 


io6     Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

passports.  The  latter  category  included  immi 
grants  bound  for  Canada,  Mexico,  and  South 
America  who  were  sidetracked  on  the  way,  those 
who  lost  their  passports,  as  well  as  deserting  seamen 
and  smugglers.  For  these  cases  of  illicit  endeavors 
to  enter  America,  the  Japanese  Government  can 
hardly  be  held  responsible.  It  would  be  absurd  to 
put  forth  the  negligible  number  of  585  cases,  that 
are  recorded  during  the  period  of  ten  years  as 
persons  who  are  not  entitled  to  passports,  as  an 
evasion  of  the  "Gentlemen's  Agreement"  on  the 
part  of  the  Tokyo  Government.  It  is  one  thing  to 
point  out  the  defects  of  the  agreement,  but  it  is  an 
entirely  different  matter  to  charge  bad  faith  in  its 
execution. 

By  way  of  summary,  then,  it  may  be  stated  that 
ever  since  the  "Gentlemen's  Agreement"  was  put 
into  effect  in  1907,  the  number  of  immigrants  has 
gradually  decreased,  those  admitted  having  been 
mostly  former  residents,  although  the  total  num 
ber  of  Japanese  coming  to  the  United  States  has 
increased,  due  to  the  growing  number  of  tourists 
and  business  men.  The  agreement,  as  far  as  its 
execution  is  concerned,  has  been  carried  out  with 
the  utmost  scruple,  but  it  is  defective  in  that  it 
does  not  clearly  distinguish  immigrants  from  non 
immigrants,  and  this  leads  to  confounding  visitors 
with  immigrants,  and  hence  to  the  unfounded  claim 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  107 

that  it  is  being  ignored,  evaded.  Judging  from 
the  sentiment  prevailing  in  California,  and  in  other 
Western  States,  against  the  Japanese,  it  is  desir 
able  that  the  agreement  be  so  amended  as  to  forbid 
the  advent  of  all  Japanese,  except  well-defined  non 
immigrants  and  former  residents  temporarily 
visiting  Japan.  This  will  prevent  the  further 
increase  through  immigration  of  Japanese  settlers 
in  California  or  elsewhere  in  the  United  States. 
This  step  is  deemed  advisable,  not  that  a  handful 
of  immigrants  as  such  is  serious,  but  that  the  main 
question  at  issue — the  treatment  of  Japanese 
already  in  America — becomes  thereby  liberated 
from  further  complication.  It  will  go  far  to  reduce 
the  fear  of  Calif ornians,  and  thereby  alleviate  the 
difficulty  of  the  main  issue. 

Smuggling. 

There  is  no  room  for  doubt  that  smuggling  is 
responsible  for  a  part  of  the  Japanese  population 
in  California.  From  the  nature  of  the  case,  it  is, 
however,  impossible  to  estimate  the  number  of 
Japanese  who  have  entered  the  United  States 
through  this  illegal  method.  During  the  visit  to 
California  last  summer,  of  the  House  sub-Com 
mittee  on  Immigration  and  Naturalization  for  the 
investigation  of  Japanese  conditions,  a  rumor  was 
circulated  and  published  in  the  principal  papers  of 


io8    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

the  country  to  the  effect  that  the  Committee  had 
discovered  amazing  facts  as  to  the  systematic 
smuggling  of  Japanese  into  this  country  through 
Guaymas.  Later,  it  was  made  clear  that  the 
rumor  owed  its  source  to  the  machinations  of 
certain  anti- Japanese  agitators  who  willfully  con 
cocted  the  canard.  While  it  is  possible  that  from 
the  Mexican  and  Canadian  borders  a  few  scores 
of  Japanese  may  be  smuggled  in  every  year,  it  is 
absurd  to  imagine  that  any  wholesale  smuggling 
is  being  practiced  through  the  connivance  of 
Japanese  officials  and  under  the  noses  of  competent 
officers  who  patrol  the  borders  and  coasts. 

It  may  also  be  remembered  that  Japan  and 
Canada  have  an  agreement  restricting  the  number 
of  Japanese  entering  Canada.  This  renders  the 
northern  borders  of  the  United  States  compara 
tively  free  from  the  danger  of  smuggling.  Except 
through  desertion  of  seamen,  which  numbered  315 
cases  during  the  past  ten  years,  it  is  almost  impossi 
ble  to  enter  secretly  by  way  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 
The  only  danger  zone  is  the  Mexican  border.  But 
here  again  there  are  good  reasons  for  believing  that 
smuggling  from  Mexico  cannot  be  practiced  on  a 
large  scale.  In  the  first  place,  the  number  of 
Japanese  in  Mexico  amounts  only  to  1169,*  and 
no  passports  have  been  granted  by  the  Japanese 

1  Japan  Year  Book,  1920,  p.  34. 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  109 

Government  since  1908  to  laborers  who  wish  to  go 
to  Mexico.1  In  the  second  place,  the  American 
Government  would  take  care  to  see  that  its  border- 
patrol  is  efficient  enough  to  arrest  smugglers.  The 
Mikado's  Government,  too,  has  been  sincere  in  co 
operating  with  the  American  authorities  to  pre 
vent  the  evasion  of  the  law. 

Birth  Rate. 

The  cardinal  question  relating  to  the  Japanese 
population  in  California  is  the  question  of  birth 
rate.  Immigration  can  be  restricted,  smuggling  may 
be  completely  prevented,  but  the  fact  of  the  high 
birth  rate  is  something  which  cannot  be  very  easily 
combated  without  infringing  upon  traditionally 
sacred  principles  and  personal  freedom.  It  is  quite 
true  that  the  high  birth  rate  among  the  Japanese 
in  California  would  not  have  been  a  serious  matter 
if  the  nationalism  of  America  were  as  broad  as  that 
of  Ancient  Rome,  or  if  the  Japanese  were  a  race 
which  will  readily  and  speedily  lose  its  identity  in 
the  great  American  melting  pot.  But  the  fact  re 
mains  that  the  United  States  of  America  is  not 
merely  a  mixture  of  different  races  and  colors ;  she 
is  a  solid,  unified,  composite  country,  although  she 
draws  race  material  from  all  over  the  world.  Nor 

1  Pacific  Review,  vol.  i.,  No.  3,  p.  363;  "The  Japanese  in  Cali 
fornia,"  by  David  S.  Jordan. 


1 10    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 


are  the  Japanese  a  race  likely  to  amalgamate  com 
pletely  with  Americans  in  a  few  generations.  Thus 
the  question  of  Japanese  birth  rate  in  America  be 
comes  a  vital  matter,  touching  the  fundamental 
questions  of  national  and  racial  unity  in  the 
United  States. 

With  the  importance  of  the  question  clearly 
kept  in  mind,  we  shall  see  what  are  the  facts  as 
to  births  among  the  Japanese  in  California.  The 
following  table,  prepared  from  the  reports  of  the 
California  State  Board  of  Health,  Bureau  of  Vital 
Statistics,  shows  the  number  of  annual  births  of 
Japanese  from  1906  to  1919,  and  its  percentage  of 
the  total  number  of  births  in  California: 

NUMBER  OF  BIRTHS. 


Year. 

Total  Births 
in  California. 

Japanese  Births 
in  California. 

Japanese  Births  — 
Percentage  of  Total. 

I006 

I-IA 

IOO7 

221 

1908 

f 

455 



IQOQ 

682 

I9IO 

32,138 

719 

2.24% 

I9II 

34,828 

995 

2.86% 

1912 
1913 

39,330 
43,852 

1,407 
2,215 

3.73% 
5.05% 

1914 

46,012 

2,874 

6.25% 

1915 

48,075 

3»342 

6.95% 

1916 
1917 
1918 

50,638 
52,230 
55,922 

3,72i 
4,108 
4,218 

7-35% 
7-87% 
7-54% 

1919 

56,527 

4,378 

7-75% 

Totals 

459,552 

29,469 

Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  1 1 1 

The  table  indicates  in  the  first  place  that  the 
birth  rate  of  California  as  a  whole  is  steadily  grow 
ing,  and  in  the  second  place  that  the  birth  rate  of 
the  Japanese  was  very  low  until  1906  or  1907,  but 
since  then  it  has  been  rapidly  growing.  The  rela 
tive  percentage  of  Japanese  births  in  the  total 
births  of  California,  however,  indicates  the  ten 
dency  to  diminish,  having  reached  the  highest 
mark  in  1917,  when  it  was  7.87  per  cent.,  but  de 
creasing  slightly  in  the  last  few  years. 

The  exceedingly  high  birth  rate  of  the  Japanese 
in  California  becomes  clearer  when  considered  in 
terms  of  the  rate  of  birth  per  thousand  of  popula 
tion.  In  the  year  1919,  the  number  of  births  in 
California  was  1.79  per  thousand  population.  In 
Japan,  where  the  birth  rate  is  high,  it  was  2=53 
during  the  past  decade.  The  birth  rate  of  Japanese 
in  California  is  more  than  three  times  as  high  as 
that  for  the  total  of  California,  and  more  than 
double  that  in  Japan. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  this  abnormally  high 
birth  rate  among  the  Japanese  in  California.  In  the 
first  place,  a  large  portion  of  these  Japanese  are  in 
the  prime  of  life,  and  moreover  they  are  selected 
groups  of  vigorous  and  healthy  individuals.  Com 
menting  on  the  age  distribution  of  Japanese  in  this 
country,  the  report  of  the  Bureau  of  Census  states1 ; 

Bulletin  127,  1914,  p.  8. 


H2    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 


The  most  noteworthy  fact  about  the  age  distribu 
tion  of  the  Japanese  is  their  remarkable  concentration 
on  the  age  groups  25  to  44,  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
Japanese  being  in  this  period  of  life.  Only  4.5  per  cent, 
of  the  Japanese  are  over  45  years  of  age,  as  compared 
with  44.7  per  cent,  of  the  Chinese.  The  explanation 
is,  doubtless,  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  Japanese 
represent  more  recent  immigration  than  the  Chinese. 

The  truth  of  this  statement  was  borne  out  by  the 
recent  investigation  conducted  by  the  Japanese 
Association  of  San  Francisco,  which  obtained  the 
following  result  in  thirty-six  northern  counties  of 
California : 

AGE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  JAPANESE  IN  MIDDLE  AND  NORTHERN 
CALIFORNIA,  1920. 


Age. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

Percentage  of 
Age  Group. 

Under    7 
8    to   16 
17  to  40 
Above  40 

4,078 
2,035 
17,037 
5,683 

3,786 
1,663 

8,535 
805 

7,864 
3,698 
25,572 
6,488 

18.% 
8.% 
59-% 
15-% 

Total.  .  . 

28,833 

14,789 

43,622 

IOO. 

Thus,  out  of  the  total  number  of  43,622  investi 
gated,  25,572  or  nearly  59  per  cent,  are  between 
the  ages  of  seventeen  to  forty,  only  5  per  cent. 
of  females  being  those  who  passed  the  age  of 
fertility. 
Another  reason  for  the  high  birth  rate  of  the 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  113 

Japanese  in  California  is  the  high  percentage  of 
married  people.  The  rate  of  married  people  among 
the  Japanese  in  California  suddenly  rose  since  some 
ten  years  ago  when  a  great  number  (between  400 
and  900  per  annum)  of  wives  began  to  come  in  un 
der  the  popular  name,  picture  brideswfThe  ratio 
maintained  between  male  and  female  among  the 
Japanese  in  California  was  one  to  six  ten  years  ago, 
but  at  present,  it  is  one  to  two. r  Since  it  is  esti 
mated  that  there  are  16,195  Japanese  wives  in 
California,2  it  is  obvious  that  there  are  double 
that  number,  or  32,390  married  Japanese,  in  Cali 
fornia,  which  means  that  46  per  cent,  of  the  total 
population  are  married.  This  is  apparently  a  high 
rate,  since  it  is  17  per  cent,  in  Japan,  36  per  cent, 
in  Great  Britain,  37  per  cent,  in  Italy.  Although 
exact  data  is  lacking,  judging  from  the  fact  that 
only  less  than  a  half  of  California's  white  popula 
tion  are  of  ages  above  twenty-one, 3  it  may  not  be 
too  far-fetched  to  estimate  the  percentage  of  mar 
ried  people  at  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  population. 

'The  following  data  are  reported  by  the  Bureau  of  Census, 
Washington,  in  preliminary  publication  of  1920  census: 

The  Japanese  population  by  sex  in  1920  is  male  44,364,  female 
25,832;  for  IQIO,  male  35,116,  female  6,240;  and  for  1900,  male 
9,598,  femaler$53.  The  per  cent,  distribution  by  sex  of  the  Jap 
anese  in  1920  is  male  63.2  per  cent.,  female  36.8  per  cent.;  for 
1910  male  84.9  per  cent,  female  15.1  per  cent.;  and  for  1900, 
male  94.6  per  cent.,  female  5.4  per  cent. 

3  Gulick,  S.  L.,  Japan  and  the  Gentlemen's  Agreement,  1920,  p.  7. 

'  World  Almanac  192  J,  p.  476-9. 


1 14    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

From  the  foregoing  considerations  we  can  de 
duce  this,  that  the  Japanese  are  mostly  at  the 
prime  of  life,  and  that  the  percentage  of  married 
people  is  exceedingly  high.  Now,  in  comparing 
the  birth  rates  of  two  groups  such  as  those  of  the 
Japanese  and  of  the  Californians  in  general,  a  mere 
comparison  of  rates  without  taking  into  considera 
tion  the  difference  in  age  distribution  and  marital 
conditions  is  not  only  useless,  but  it  is  absolutely 
misleading.  California  has  only  20  per  cent,  of 
people  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  to  forty-four, J 
while  the  Japanese  group  has  59  per  cent.;  Cali 
fornia  has  about  25  per  cent,  or  less  of  married 
population,  including  those  who  have  passed  the 
fertile  period ;  while  the  Japanese  community  has 
46  per  cent,  of  married  population,  all  of  whom 
are  in  the  zenith  of  productivity.  No  wonder, 
then,  that  the  Japanese  in  California  have  three 
times  as  high  a  birth  rate  as  that  of  California  as 
a  whole. 

There  is  another  factor  which  accounts  for  the 
high  birth  rate  of  the  Japanese.  It  is  the  sudden 
rise  of  the  standard  of  living.  It  is  an  established 
principle  of  immigration  that  when  immigrants 
settle  in  a  new  country  and  attain  a  much  higher 
standard  of  living  than  they  were  accustomed  to  at 
home  they  tend  to  multiply  very  rapidly  through 

1  World  Almanac  1920,  p.  487. 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  115 

high  birth  rate.  Among  the  European  immigrants 
in  this  country,  a  birth  rate  of  fifty  per  thousand  is 
not  rare. z  In  the  careful  researches  made  in  Rhode 
Island  concerning  the  fertility  of  the  immigrant 
population,2  it  was  found  that  their  birth  rate  was 
invariably  high,  72  per  cent,  of  the  married  women 
each  having  upwards  of  three  children,  with  an 
average  of  4.5  children  for  each  one  of  them.  This 
fact  holds  equally  good  for  the  Japanese  immi 
grants,  most  of  whom  came  from  the  poor  quarters 
of  the  agricultural  communities,  where  not  only 
economic  handicaps  but  customs  and  social  fetters 
operate  to  check  their  multiplication.  When, 
therefore,  they  come  to  California,  where  food  is 
abundant,  work  easy,  climate  salubrious,  and  per 
sonal  freedom  is  incomparably  greater,  they  nat 
urally  tend  to  multiply. 

What  we  May  Expect  in  the  Future. 

We  have  seen,  then,  that  the  high  birth  rate 
among  the  Japanese  settlers  in  California  is  due 
primarily  to  the  facts  that  the  largest  portion  of 
them  are  in  the  prime  of  life ;  that  the  percentage 
of  married  people  is  remarkably  high,  the  larger 
part  of  them,  especially  the  women,  being  at  the 

1  The  birth  rate  of  immigration  population  in  Massachusetts 
was  49.1  in  1910. 

3  Senate  Document,  vol.  Ixv.;  6ist  Congress. 


u6    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

zenith  of  productivity,  and  that  their  standard  of 
living  suddenly  improves  when  they  settle  in 
California.  The  question  naturally  arises  as  to 
what  will  be  the  future  development  of  Japanese 
nativity.  Remembering  that  a  prediction,  how 
ever  scientific,  cannot  at  best  be  more  than  a 
possibility,  we  shall  venture  to  forecast  the  future 
of  the  Japanese  birth  rate  in  California. 

In  doing  so,  the  proper  way  would  be  to  examine 
any  possible  future  change  in  the  causes  which 
constitute  the  present  high  birth  rate.  How,  then, 
about  the  age  distribution  of  the  Japanese?  It  has 
been  shown  that  59  per  cent,  of  them  are  between 
the  ages  of  seventeen  and  forty,  and  that  15  per 
cent,  of  them  are  above  forty.  In  other  words,  74 
per  cent,  of  the  Japanese  are  mature,  while  only 
26  per  cent,  are  minors.  Now,  we  are  all  mor 
tals,  and  grow  old  as  time  passes ;  even  the  Jap 
anese  do  not  have  magical  power  to  retain  perennial 
juvenility,  as  some  agitators  seem  to  think.  They 
grow  old,  the  Japanese  in  California,  as  years  come 
and  go,  passing  gradually  into  the  age  when  child- 
bearing  is  no  longer  possible.  Therefore,  if  fresh 
immigration  is  checked,  which  we  have  already 
indicated  is  desirable,  it  is  manifest  that  a  large 
portion  of  the  present  Japanese  in  California  will 
die  out  without  being  reinforced  by  youths  save 
those  who  are  born  in  America,  and  hence  are  citi- 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  117 


zens  thereof.  That  this  tendency  has  already  set 
in  may  be  seen  from  the  increase  of  the  death  rate 
among  the  Japanese  in  California,  as  the  following 
table  indicates : 

DEATH  RATE  OF  JAPANESE  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


Year. 

Number. 

Percentage  of  Death  per  1000. 

1910 

440 

10.64% 

IQII 

472 

.... 

1912 
1913 

524 
613 

.... 

1914 

628 

1915 

663 

.... 

1916 

739 

.... 

1917 

910 

.... 

1918 

1150 

1919 

1360 

20.00% 

The  rate  of  death  per  one  thousand  population 
increased  twice  during  the  past  ten  years. 

When  the  age  distribution  becomes  normal  by 
the  passing  away  of  the  middle-aged  group  which 
constitutes  the  majority  at  present,  rendering  the 
population  evenly  distributed  among  the  children, 
middle-aged,  and  the  old,  the  present  high  per 
centage  of  married  people  also  will  disappear, 
descending  to  the  normal  rate  ruling  in  the  ordin 
ary  communities,  which  is  but  half  as  high  as  that 
now  prevailing  among  the  Japanese  living  in 
California.  When  the  number  of  young  people 
relatively  lessens,  and  that  of  married  people  also 


n8    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

decreases,  what  other  result  can  we  expect  but  the 
marked  fall  in  numbers  born? 

Improved  standards  of  living  as  a  cause  of  the 
high  birth  rate  will  also  cease  to  operate  as  new 
immigrants  will  no  longer  enter ;  and  the  American- 
born  generations  will  gradually  take  their  parents' 
place.  The  younger  generations  of  Japanese  are 
as  a  rule  higher  in  culture  and  ideals  than  their 
parents.  Accordingly,  it  is  unthinkable,  other 
things  being  equal,  that  they  should  go  on  mul 
tiplying  themselves  as  their  parents  did.  It  is  an 
established  principle  proved  conclusively  by  the 
thoroughgoing  Congressional  researches  in  Rhode 
Island,1  that  the  birth  rate  among  foreign -born 
immigrants  is  exceeding^  high,  and  that  it  steadily 
decreases  in  successive  generations,  reaching  the 
normal  American  rate  within  a  few  generations. 
We  are,  then,  on  a  safe  ground  in  inferring  that  a 
similar  tendency  will  also  manifest  itself  among  the 
Japanese  in  the  United  States. 

Our  discussions  concerning  future  birth  rate, 
then,  seem  to  point  decidedly  to  the  conclusion 
that  since  the  present  high  percent  age  of  the  middle- 
age  group  and  the  married  group  is  bound  to 
diminish  as  time  passes,  and  since  the  fertility  of 
the  future  generations  is  not  likely  to  be  as  high 
as  that  of  their  parents,  it  will  decrease  markedly 

1  Senate  Document,  vol.  Ixv.,  6ist  Congress. 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  1 19 

by  the  time  the  present  generation  passes  away. 
It  is,  therefore,  only  a  question  of  time.  The 
present  is  a  transitional  period,  a  turning-point, 
in  the  history  of  the  Japanese  in  America.  It  is 
surely  unwise,  then,  to  become  unduly  excited 
over  the  passing  phenomenon,  and  thereby  defeat 
the  working  of  a  natural  process  which  promises 
to  bring  about  a  satisfactory  solution  in  the  not 
distant  future. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

FACTS  ABOUT  THE  JAPANESE  IN  CALIFORNIA — 
FARMERS  AND  ALIEN  LAND  LAWS 

AGRICULTURE  is  by  far  the  most  important 
occupation  of  the  Japanese  in  California. 
Out  of  the  total  Japanese  population  of  70,196  in 
California,  38,000  belong  to  the  farming  classes 
including  those  who  are  sustained  by  bread 
winners.  Besides,  there  are  thousands  of  laborers 
who  seek  farm  work  during  the  summer.  Perhaps 
owing  to  the  facts  that  most  of  the  Japanese  immi 
grants  are  drawn  from  the  agricultural  communi 
ties  in  Japan,  that  the  climate  and  soil  of  California 
are  especially  suited  to  the  kinds  of  farming  in 
which  the  Japanese  are  skilled- — such  as  garden  - 
trucking  and  berry -farming — the  Japanese  in 
California  have  been  markedly  successful  in  agri 
cultural  pursuits. 

History  of  Japanese  Agriculture  in  California. 

The  history  of  Japanese  farming  in  California 
dates  back  to  the  time  when  the  Chinese  Exclusion 
Law  was  enacted  in  1882.  A  number  of  Japanese 

120 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  121 

laborers  were  employed  in  the  Vaca  Valley  and 
another  group  in  the  vineyards  of  Fresno  as  early 
as  1887-1888.  Since  that  time  the  number  of 
Japanese  farm  laborers  has  steadily  increased. 
They  have  distributed  themselves  widely  in  the 
lower  Sacramento,  San  Joaquin  River,  Marysville, 
and  Suisun  districts.  Later  many  Japanese  settled 
in  Southern  California.  During  that  early  period 
the  Japanese  farm  laborers  were  warmly  welcomed 
by  the  California  farmers  because  of  the  dearth 
of  farm  hands  and  because  of  their  skill  and  indus 
try  in  farming. 

But  the  Japanese  were  not  satisfied  at  remaining 
mere  farm  hands.  They  saved  their  wages  and 
attempted  to  start  independent  farming.  In  many 
cases  independent  farming  was  not  as  profitable 
as  wage  labor,  since  the  former  involved  risk  and 
responsibility.  Yet  because  of  the  incalculable 
pleasure  which  independence  brings,  because  of  the 
ease  with  which  leases  could  be  obtained,  and  be 
cause  of  the  social  prestige  attached  to  the  "in 
dependent  farmers,"  the  Japanese  developed  a 
distinct  tendency  to  lease  or  buy  land  and  to  take 
up  farming  by  themselves  rather  than  be  employed 
as  wage  earners. 

This  tendency,  however,  did  not  manifest  itself 
distinctly  until  some  time  later,  when  they  had 
saved  sufficient  sums  of  money  to  launch  such 


122    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

undertakings.  Thus  the  census  of  1900  records 
only  29  farms,  covering  4698  acres,  which  were 
operated  by  Japanese.  The  number  steadily  in 
creased  during  the  following  ten  years.  Accord 
ing  to  the  census  of  1910  they  operated  1816  farms, 
covering  99,254  acres  of  land.  At  present  it  is 
reported  that  they  own  some  600  farms  covering 
74,769  acres  and  operate  some  6000  farms  embrac 
ing  383,287  acres  under  lease  or  crop  contract, 
bringing  the  total  farm  acreage  under  Japanese 
control  to  458,056  acres. 

The  brilliant  success  of  the  Japanese  farmers  in 
California  may  be  better  appreciated  when  the 
amount  and  value  of  the  crops  turned  out  by  them 
every  year  are  considered.  Governor  Stephens,  in 
his  letter  to  Secretary  of  State  Colby,  quotes  in 
part  the  report  prepared  by  the  State  Board  of 
Control,  and  states: 

...  At  the  present  time,  between  80  and  90  per 
cent,  of  most  of  our  vegetable  and  berry  products  are 
those  of  the  Japanese  farms.  Approximately,  80  per 
cent,  of  the  tomato  crop  of  the  State  is  produced  by 
Japanese;  from  80  to  100  per  cent,  of  the  spinach  crop; 
a  greater  part  of  our  potato  and  asparagus  crops,  and 
so  on. 

In  another  part  of  the  letter  he  remarks : 

...  In  productive  values — that  is  to  say,  in  the 
market  value  of  crops  produced  by  them — our  figures 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  123 

show  that  as  against  $6,235,856  worth  of  produce 
marketed  in  1909,  the  increase  has  been  to  $67,145,730, 
approximately  ten-fold. 

Causes  of  Progress. 

There  are  many  causes  for  this  rapid  develop 
ment.  In  the  first  place,  the  Japanese  as  a  rule 
are  ambitious.  They  do  not  rest  satisfied,  like  the 
Chinese  and  the  Mexicans,  with  being  employed 
as  farm  laborers.  They  save  money  or  form  part 
nerships  with  well-to-do  friends,  and  start  inde 
pendent  farms.  This  is  made  easy  by  a  form  of 
tenancy  which  prevails  in  California.  That  is,  the 
landowner  advances  the  required  sum  of  money 
to  a  tenant,  offers  him  tools  and  shelter,  and  in 
return  receives  rent  from  the  sale  of  the  crops. 
This  is  a  modified  form  of  crop  contract,  but  it 
is  decidedly  more  secure  for  the  owner,  because 
he  assumes  less  risk.  It  is  more  profitable  to 
the  tenant  because  he  gets  a  due  reward  for  his 
effort.  On  account  of  the  ease  with  which  this 
kind  of  lease  is  obtained,  ambitious  Japanese  farm 
laborers  soon  become  tenants,  and  when  successful 
—and  usually  they  are — they  buy  a  piece  of  land 
with  the  intention  of  making  a  permanent  settle 
ment. 

That  Japanese  farmers  are  usually  favorably 
regarded  by  landowners  is  an  important  factor  in 
their  success.  Although  there  have  been  cases  in 


124    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

which  the  Japanese  provoked  the  hatred  of  land 
owners  by  not  observing  promises  or  failing  to 
carry  out  contracts,  on  the  whole,  the  Japanese  are 
preferred  to  other  races,  because  they  are  more 
peaceful,  take  better  care  of  the  land,  and  pay 
higher  rent. x 

The  reason  why  Japanese  take  better  care  of  the 
land  and  can  pay  higher  rent  than  ordinary  farmers 
may  be  found  in  their  previous  agricultural  train 
ing  in  Japan.  There  the  farming  is  conducted  on 
the  basis  of  intensive  cultivation.  Moreover,  in 
order  to  prevent  exhaustion  of  land  the  farmers  are 
accustomed  to  taking  minute  care  that  the  soil's 
fertility  be  retained.  This  habit  of  intensive  cul 
tivation  and  the  minute  care  of  the  soil,  which  are 
really  inseparable,  are  maintained  by  the  Japanese 
farmers  when  they  undertake  agriculture  in  Cali 
fornia.  Furthermore,  it  so  happens  that  the 
climate  and  soil  of  California  are  especially  suited 
for  intensive  cultivation.  Such  products  as  vege 
tables  and  berries,  which  grow  so  abundantly  in 
California,  are  precisely  the  kinds  of  crops  which 

1  Of  the  forty-one  answers  to  the  questionnaires  sent  to  the 
County  Farm  Commissioners  in  California  by  the  Board  of 
Control  asking  them  to  give  pertinent  facts  concerning  the 
methods  used  by  these  races  (Orientals)  in  securing  land  leases, 
twenty-five  stated:  "The  Japanese  pay  more  rent  in  cash  or 
shares";  ten  said:  "Japanese  pay  ordinary  rent"  or  "use 
ordinary  means  in  obtaining  lease."  California  and  the  Oriental, 
pp.  56-61. 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  125 

demand  careful  and  intensive  cultivation.  The 
notable  success  of  Japanese  farmers  in  this  form  of 
production,  therefore,  is  not  an  accident.  By  the 
introduction  of  methods  of  intensive  cultivation 
they  have  been  able  to  take  good  care  of  the  land 
and  to  pay  high  rent  to  the  landowners. 

That  the  Japanese  are  good  farmers  is  attested 
by  the  fact  that  they  actually  produce  more  per 
acre  than  the  other  farmers.  The  Japanese- 
American  Year  Book  of  1918  has  the,  following 
comment  to  make  regarding  the  efficiency  of 
Japanese  farmers  in  California : 

In  the  year  1917  there  were  12,000,000  acres  of 
irrigated  farm  lands  in  California.  From  this,  Cali 
fornia  produced  crops  valued  at  $500,000,000;  that  is 
to  say,  the  value  of  the  product  turned  out  per  acre 
was  about  $42.  Japanese  cultivated  390,000  acres  and 
produced  $55,000,000  worth  of  farm  products,  or 
$141  per  acre.  The  value  of  the  Japanese  farms  turned 
out  per  acre  was,  therefore,  three  and  a  half  times 
as  much  as  that  obtained  by  California  farms  in 
general. 

Perhaps  the  patience  and  industry  with  which 
the  Japanese  have  developed  some  of  the  "raw" 
land  of  California  into  productive  farm  land  ac 
counts  for  their  prosperity  in  such  localities  as 
Florin,  New  Castle,  the  Sacramento  district,  and 
the  Imperial  Valley. 


126    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

Japanese  Farm  Labor. 

We  may  now  inquire  to  what  extent  the  Japanese 
farmers  constitute  a  menace  to  the  California 
farmers  and  to  the  State  of  California.  In  con 
sidering  this  question,  it  is  useful  to  distinguish 
between  the  Japanese  farm  laborers  and  the 
regular  farmers. 

There  are  in  California  at  present  about  fifteen 
thousand  Japanese  who  are  employed  in  various 
kinds  of  agriculture.  The  number  varies  according 
to  season.  In  the  summer  months  it  increases  con 
siderably,  while  in  the  winter  it  greatly  decreases. 
When  the  seasonal  work  is  over  in  a  locality,  the 
men  seek  other  jobs  in  other  localities.  There 
is  work  for  them  throughout  the  year,  since  the 
climatic  conditions  of  California  are  such  that 
some  crop  is  raised  in  some  part  of  the  State  in 
almost  all  months.  The  agency  which  adjusts  the 
demand  and  supply  of  farm  labor  is  known  as  a 
"Japanese  Employment  Office."  There  are  over 
three  hundred,  at  least,  of  such  agencies  facilitating 
the  supply  of  labor. 

The  chief  advantage  which  the  employment  of 
Japanese  farm  laborers  offers  to  employers  is,  in 
the  first  place,  their  highly  transitory  character. 
Most  of  the  Japanese  laborers,  being  men  of  middle 
age  with  no  settled  homes,  go  to  any  place  where 
wages  are  high.  The  convenience  which  the  far- 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  127 

mers  receive  from  this  rapid  supply  of  necessary 
labor  is  immense,  since  the  crops  handled  by  the 
Japanese  are  perishables  demanding  immediate 
harvesting.  The  transitory  facility  of  Japanese 
labor  is  one  thing  which  California  farmers  can 
not  easily  dispense  with  and  is  a  thing  which 
the  white  laborers  with  families  cannot  very  well 
substitute. 

Another  convenience  derived  from  the  employ 
ment  of  Japanese  farm  labor  is  the  "boss  system." 
It  is  a  form  of  contract  labor  in  which  a  farmer 
employs  workers  on  his  farm  as  a  united  body 
through  its  representative  or  boss.  This  frees  the 
farmer  from  the  care  of  overseeing  the  work,  of 
arranging  the  wages  with  the  workers,  and  of 
taking  other  troubles.  Although  this  system 
has  given  rise  to  many  regrettable  complications 
through  the  occasional  failure  of  the  Japanese  to 
observe  their  contracts,  which  leads  to  the  gen 
eral  belief  that  the  Japanese  are  unreliable  and 
dishonest;  nevertheless,  this  "boss  system"  re 
mains  as  the  one  distinct  feature  of  Japanese 
farm  labor  which  is  welcomed  by  the  California 
farmers. 

There  is  one  more  characteristic  of  the  Japanese 
farm  laborers  which  is  unique  and  extremely  im 
portant.  They  are  by  habit  and  constitution 
adapted  to  the  garden  farming  which  prevails  in 


128    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

California.  Fruit  and  berry  picking,  trimming 
and  hoeing,  transplanting  and  nursery  work,  which 
require  manual  dexterity,  quick  action,  and  stoop 
ing  over  or  squatting,  are  singularly  suited  to  the 
Japanese.  No  other  race,  save  possibly  the 
Chinese,  can  compete  with  the  Japanese  in  this 
sort  of  field  labor  .^  With  their  training  in  intensive 
cultivation,  with  physical  adaptation  to  the  im 
portant  agricultural  industries  of  California,  and 
with  the  rapid  transitory  capacity  and  advantage 
ous  system  of  contract  labor,  the  Japanese  farm 
laborers  constitute  an  important  asset  to  the 
agriculture  of  California. 

There  are,  however,  serious  charges  made  against 
this  class  of  Japanese.  Perhaps  the  most  pertinent 
criticism  of  them  is  that  they  do  not  observe  con 
tracts  or  promises.  This  question  was  very  ably 
discussed  by  Professor  Millis  in  his  valuable  book, 
The  Japanese  Problem  in  the  United  States,  as 
follows : 

Much  has  been  heard  to  the  effect  that  the  Japanese 
are  not  honest  in  contractual  relations.  ...  So  far 
as  it  relates  to  the  business  relations  of  the  farmers, 
there  has  been  not  a  little  complaint.  Much  of  it, 
however,  appears  to  have  been  due  to  their  inability 
to  understand  all  the  details  of  a  contract  they  could 
not  read.  In  recent  years  more  care  has  been  taken  to 
understand  all  of  the  conditions  of  the  contract  en 
tered  into,  and  the  charges  of  breach  of  contract  have 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  129 

become  much  fewer.  Another  source  of  misunder 
standing  has  been  that  some  of  the  Japanese,  who  think 
more  in  personal  terms  and  less  in  terms  of  contract 
than  the  Americans,  have  sought  to  secure  a  change  in 
their  leases  when  they  proved  to  be  bad  bargains,  and 
have  occasionally  left  their  holdings  in  order  to  avoid 
loss.  A  third  fact  is  that  formerly  some  undesirable 
Japanese  secured  leases.  These,  however,  have  gradu 
ally  fallen  out  of  the  class  of  tenants,  so  that  most  of 
those  who  remain  are  efficient  and  desirable  farmers. l 

Another  charge  is  that  they  work  for  lower  wages 
than  the  white  laborers.  This  may  have  been 
true  several  years  ago,  but  at  present  it  is  claimed 
that  the  exact  reverse  is  the  case.  The  answers 
received  by  the  State  Board  of  Control  of  Califor 
nia  to  questionnaires  sent  out  by  it  (one  of  which 
was,  "  Give  wage  comparisons,  with  notes  on  living 
conditions,")  to  the  County  Horticultural  Com 
missioners  and  County  Farm  Advisers  in  the  State, 
agree  on  one  essential;  namely,  that  Japanese 
farm  hands  are  receiving  wages  equal  to  or  higher 
than  those  paid  the  white  workers.2 

Mr.  Chiba,  the  managing  director  of  the 
Japanese  Agricultural  Association  of  California, 
gives  the  following  figures  as  to  wages  of  Japanese 
and  white  farm  laborers3: 

1  The  Japanese  Problem  in  the  United  States,  pp.  148-49. 
3  California  and  the  Oriental,  pp.  56-61. 
p.  aai. 


J3°    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

During  Harvest.  After  Harvest. 

Japanese  common  laborers,  $4  per  day  with  $3.50  per  day 

meals.  with  meals. 

White  common  laborers,  $3.50  per  day  $3  per  day  with 

with  meals.  meals. 

White  teamsters,  $4  per  day  with  $3.50  per  day 

meals.  with  meals. 


The  charge  that  the  living  conditions  of  Japanese 
are  lower  is  a  thing  which  cannot  be  determined  by 
off-hand  judgment.  Reliable  statistics  are  lacking 
in  this  line.  In  fact,  the  standard,  by  which  we 
may  safely  pronounce  our  judgment  on  the  ques 
tion,  is  not  easy  to  establish  scientifically.  Food, 
dress,  and  dwelling  may,  on  the  whole,  be  taken  as 
the  criteria  for  comparison.  The  food,  however, 
when  it  happens  to  be  different  in  kind  between  two 
groups  of  people,  unless  the  prices  are  compared, 
cannot  be  taken  as  a  sure  measure  for  estimating 
the  higher  or  lower  standard  of  living.  The  diet 
of  the  Japanese  farmer  is  different  in  kind  from 
that  of  the  American;  but  it  will  be  rash  to  con 
clude  that  the  Japanese  standard  of  living  is  there 
by  lower  than  that  of  the  American.  As  a  rule, 
the  Japanese  feed  and  dress  well.  There  is  perhaps 
no  more  liberal  spender  than  a  Japanese  youth. 
His  weakness  lies  rather  in  taking  too  much  delight 
in  making  display  than  in  taking  to  heart  the 
qualities  of  a  miser.  In  dwellings  the  Japanese 
have  nothing  to  compare  with  the  comfortable  and 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  131 

durable  homes  of  the  Americans.  The  reason  for 
this  deficiency  is  that  the  Japanese  have  no  assur 
ance  for  the  future ;  hence  they  have  no  incentive 
to  build  permanent  homes.  At  any  rate,  as  long 
as  the  Japanese  are  getting  higher  wages  than  the 
white  laborers,  and  are  not  underbidding  the  latter, 
frugal  living  and  money-saving  are  wholly  a  matter 
of  individual  freedom,  which  should  not  give  cause 
for  criticism. 

That  there  are  still  other  shortcomings  in  Jap 
anese  farm  laborers  must  be  conceded.  They  are 
irascible,  unstable,  complaining,  unsubmissive. 
These  are  inborn  tendencies  of  the  Japanese,  and 
it  is  not  easy  to  correct  them  in  a  short  time. 

Concerning  the  question  as  to  what  extent  the 
Orientals  displace  white  labor,  the  replies  given  by 
the  County  Horticultural  Commissioners  and  the 
County  Farm  Advisers  of  California  disclose  this 
interesting  fact;  namely,  that  in  most  counties 
where  Japanese  are  engaged  in  farm  work  they  are 
not  displacing  white  labor,  and  only  in  a  few 
counties  where  fruits  are  the  chief  products  do  they  / 
appear  to  displace  white  labor  to  any  extent.1 
The  truth  is  that  the  supply  of  Japanese  farm  labor 
has  been  diminishing  noticeably  since  the  virtual 
stopping  of  immigration,  while  the  demand  has 
been  on  the  increase.  In  1910,  it  was  reported  that 

1  California  and  the  Oriental,  p.  58. 


T32    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

30,000  Japanese  were  engaged  in  farm  labor  in 
California1;  in  1918,  there  were  only  15,794  em" 
ployed. a  Professor  Millis  observed 

The  number  of  Japanese  available  for  employment 
by  white  farmers  has  diminished,  and  in  certain  com 
munities  to  a  marked  degree.  The  total  number  of 
such  laborers  has  decreased  with  restriction  on  immi 
gration,  and  the  increase  in  number  of  Japanese 
farmers. 3 

Japanese  Fanners. 

While  Japanese  farm  labor  has  been  diminishing, 
the  responsible  farmers  have  been  increasing.  As 
already  stated,  in  1909  the  Japanese  controlled 
1816  farms,  covering  99,254  acres;  but  in  1919  they 
cultivated  6000  farms,  embracing  458,056  acres. 
The  value  of  the  annual  farm  products  also  jumped 
from  $6,235,856  to  $67,145,230  during  the  ten- 
year  period.  Thus  the  increase  of  cultivation  area 
has  been  approximately  four-fold  and  that  of  the 
crop  value  ten-fold. 

For  three  outstanding  reasons  the  rapid  progress 
of  Japanese  farmers  is  envisaged  with  serious  ap 
prehension.  The  first  reason  is  found  in  the  words 
of  the  Governor  of  California : 

1  Immigration  Commission  Reports,  vol.  xxiii.,  chap.  iv. 

3  Japanese-American  Year  Book,  1918,  p.  10. 

>  The  Japanese  Problem  in  the  United  States,  p.  123. 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  133 

These  Japanese,  by  very  reason  of  their  use  of 
economic  standards  impossible  to  our  white  ideals — 
that  is  to  say,  the  employment  of  their  wives  and  their 
very  children  in  the  arduous  toil  of  the  soil — are 
proving  crushing  competitors  to  our  white  rural 
populations . 

This  statement,  that  the  Japanese  are  crushing 
competitors  of  California  farmers,  is  in  a  measure 
true,  but  it  greatly  exaggerates  the  situation.  In 
California,  large  farms  still  predominate,  and  the 
average  size  of  a  farm  is  about  two  hundred  acres. 
The  size  of  the  Japanese  farm  is  usually  small,  the 
average  being  about  fifty-seven  acres.  The  con 
trast  is  due  to  the  difference  both  in  the  method 
of  cultivation  and  in  the  crops  raised  by  white 
and  Japanese  farmers.  The  crops  cultivated 
exclusively  by  white  farmers  are  such  as  corn, 
fruit,  nuts,  hay,  and  grain,  which  require  extensive 
farming  and  the  employment  of  machines  and 
elaborate  instruments.  The  Japanese,  being  accus 
tomed  to  intensive  cultivation,  almost  monopolize 
the  state  production  of  berries,  celery,  asparagus, 
etc.,  which  require  much  stooping,  squatting,  and 
painstaking  manual  work.  Thus  there  is  a  clear 
line  of  demarkation  between  white  and  Japanese 
farmers  based  on  the  difference  of  training  and 
physical  constitution. ' 

1  For  detailed  comparison  of  crops  raised  by  white  and  Jap 
anese  farmers  see  Appendix  E. 


134    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  crops  which 
are  exclusively  raised  by  white  farmers  are  those 
which  constitute  the  more  important  products  of 
the  State,  a  greater  acreage  of  land  being  devoted 
to  each  of  them.  Most  of  the  products  which  are 
monopolized  by  the  Japanese  are  newly  introduced 
kinds,  total  crop  values  of  which  are  small,  a  very 
limited  amount  of  acreage  being  used  for  their  cul 
tivation.  This  being  the  case,  it  is  clearly  mis 
leading  to  represent  the  Japanese  farmers  as 
" crushing  competitors"  of  all  other  agriculturists 
in  California.  Some  of  those  who  follow  the  Jap 
anese  methods  of  intensive  cultivation  perhaps 
find  themselves  injured  by  the  more  efficient  and 
successful  Japanese  farmers,  but  the  number  of 
such  farmers  is  very  small. 

j/That  the  Japanese  work  longer  hours  than  the 
white  farmers  is  true.  That  they  occasionally  work 
on  Sundays  is  also  true.  The  explanation  for  this 
is  that,  being  discouraged  from  taking  part  in  the 
communal  life  and  activities,  they  naturally  tend 
to  spend  more  time  in  work  and  to  seek  recreation 
in  work  itself.  On  many  of  the  Japanese  farms  it  is 
frequently  the  custom  to  have  a  day  off  during  the 
week  instead  of  on  Sunday  for  the  purpose  of  going 
to  town  to  shop  or  to  go  visiting.  It  is  true  that  the 
women  and  children  are  often  found  working  in  the 
fields  with  the  men,  but  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  135 

in  intensive  cultivation  there  is  much  trivial  work 
which  children  and  women  can  undertake  without 
undue  physical  exertion.  The  children  are  usually 
allowed  to  play  in  the  fields  around  their  parents 
while  the  parents  work,  and  this  is  often  repre 
sented  as  compelling  children  of  tender  age  to 
engage  in  "arduous  toil." 

We  cannot,  of  course,  ascertain  how  far  the 
Japanese  farmers  will  in  the  future  push  and  drive 
the  white  farmers  out  if  they  are  given  a  free  hand ; 
but  it  is  certain  that  at  the  present  time  the  sharp 
competition  has  not  yet  commenced  on  account  of 
the  clear  division  of  labor  established  between  the 
Japanese  and  white  farmers.  That  the  unparal 
leled  success  of  Japanese  farmers  should  give  rise 
to  jealousy  and  hatred  among  intolerant  American 
farmers  is  an  inevitable  tendency. 

The  second  reason  given  for  apprehension  is  that 
the  Japanese  might  soon  control  the  entire  agricul 
tural  land  of  California  unless  preventive  measures 
are  promptly  adopted.  This  particular  fear  was 
by  far  the  most  powerful  factor  in  ushering  in  and 
passing  the  land  laws  prohibiting  either  lease  or 
ownership  of  agricultural  land  by  an  Oriental. 
The  groundless  nature  of  the  premonition  becomes 
apparent  when  a  few  figures  are  introduced. 
California  has  27,931,444  acres  of  farm  land,  of 
which  about  half  has  been  improved.  The  Jap- 


136    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

anese  at  the  end  of  1920  owned  74,769  acres  and 
leased  383,287  acres. '  It  may  be  true  that  the  lands 
under  Japanese  control  are  usually  good  lands,  but 
they  were  not  so  invariably  at  the  time  of  purchase. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  most  of  the  lands  which  Jap 
anese  have  secured  were  at  first  either  untillable 
or  of  the  poorest  quality,  and  only  by  dint  of 
patient  toil  have  they  been  converted  into  produc 
tive  soil."TMany  thrilling  stories  are  told  of  the 
hardship  and  perseverance  of  Japanese  farmers, 
who  have  after  failure  on  failure  succeeded  in  their 
enterprise.  Theyjiave  indeed  reclaimed  swamps 
and  rehabilitated  many  neglected  orchards  and 
ranches.  Whatever  may  be  the  nature  of  the  land 
owned  by  Japanese,  however,  its  amount  is  truly 
insignificant.  It  forms  only  0.27  per  cent,  of  the 
agricultural  lands  of  California,  or  one  acre  for 
every  374  acres ;  while  the  amount  leased  is  1 .40 
per  cent,  or  one  acre  for  every  72.8  acres.  This 
is  saying  that  the  Japanese  in  California,  who 
constitute  2  per  cent,  of  the  native  population, 
cultivate  under  freehold  and  leasehold  1.67  per 
cent,  of  the  farm  lands  of  California.  When  we 
recollect  that  more  than  half  of  California's  ag 
ricultural  land — 16,000,000  acres — is  still  left  un 
cultivated,  it  seems  almost  preposterous  that  so 
much  vociferation  should  be  raised  because  of 
1  Figures  taken  from  California  and  the  Oriental,  p.  47. 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  137 

the  very  limited  amount  of  acreage  held  by  the 
Japanese. 

The  weightiest  reason  offered  for  the  necessity 
of  checking  Japanese  agricultural  progress  is  the 
one  which  almost  all  leaders  of  the  anti-Japanese 
movement  have  emphasized;  namely,  that  the 
Japanese  are  unassimilable.^  If  they  were  an 
assimilable  race,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  genera 
tions  were  to  blend  their  racial  identity  with 
the  American  blood,  California  would  have  no 
reason  to  oppose  their  progress  in  agriculture. 
But  they  are  a  distinct  people  who  amalgamate 
with  difficulty,  if  at  all.  Were  they  allowed  un 
hindered  development  in  agriculture,  in  wThich 
their  success  has  been  most  marked,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  exclusionists,  they  would  multiply  tre 
mendously  in  number  and  correspondingly  increase 
in  power  to  the  extent  of  not  only  overwhelming 
the  white  population  of  California  but  also  of  en 
dangering  the  harmony  and  unity  of  American 
nationality.  This  is  precisely  the  line  of  argument 
which  the  Governor  of  California  advanced  in  his 
letter  to  Secretary  of  State  Colby.  In  its  conclu 
sion  he  states: 

I  trust  that  I  have  clearly  presented  the  California 
point  of  view,  and  that  in  any  correspondence  or 
negotiations  with  Japan  which  may  ensue  as  the  result 
of  the  accompanying  report,  or  any  action  which  the 


Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

people  of  the  State  of  California  may  take  thereon, 
you  will  understand  that  it  is  based  entirely  on  the 
principle  of  race  self-preservation  and  the  ethnological 
impossibility  of  successfully  assimilating  this  con 
stantly  increasing  flow  of  Oriental  blood. 

Accordingly,  the  question  whether  or  not  Cali 
fornia  is  justified  in  prohibiting  the  Japanese  from 
the  pursuit  of  agriculture  is  not  to  be  determined 
by  a  consideration  of  the  amount  of  land  they 
cultivate  or  the  comparative  wages  they  receive, 
but  by  the  consideration  of  their  assimilability. 
We  shall  discuss  this  pertinent  question  in  the 
next  chapter. 

Anti-Alien  Land  Laws. 

The  significance  of  the  land  issue  in  itself  being 
slight,  as  shown  by  the  foregoing  study,  a  casual 
discussion  will  suffice  on  the  issue  of  the  anti-alien 
land  laws.  The  land  law  of  1913,  which  was  en 
acted  in  spite  of  strong  opposition  among  certain 
groups  of  the  people  of  California  and  on  the  part 
of  the  Federal  Government,  provided,  in  summary: 

(i)  An  alien  not  eligible  to  citizenship  cannot 
acquire,  possess,  or  transfer  real  property,  unless 
such  is  prescribed  by  the  existing  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  the  country  of  which  he  is 
a  subject.  This  provision  takes  advantage  of  the 
fact  that  in  the  Treaty  of  Commerce  and  Naviga- 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  139 

tion  con  eluded  in  1911  between  America  and  Japan, 
no  specific  mention  is  made  concerning  the  owner 
ship  of  farm  land.  The  Treaty  provides: 

Article  I.  The  subjects  or  citizens  of  each  of  the 
high  contracting  parties  shall  receive,  in  the  territories 
of  the  other,  the  most  constant  protection  and  security 
for  their  persons  and  property,  and  shall  enjoy  in  this 
respect  the  same  rights  and  privileges  as  are  or  may 
be  granted  to  native  subjects  or  citizens,  on  their  sub 
mitting  themselves  to  the  conditions  imposed  upon  the 
native  subjects  and  citizens.1 

(2)  An  alien  not  eligible  to  citizenship  cannot 
lease  land  for  agricultural  purposes  for  a  term 
exceeding  three  years. 

(3)  Any  company  or  corporation  of  which  a 
majority  of  the  members  are  aliens  who  are  in 
eligible  to  citizenship,  or  of  which  a  majority  of  the 
issued  capital  stock  is  owned  by  such  aliens,  shall 
not  own  agricultural  lands  or  lease  for  more  than 
three  years. 

(4)  Any  real  property  acquired  in  fee  in  viola 
tion  of  the  pro  visions  of  this  act  shall  escheat  to,  and 
become  the  property  of,  the  State  of  California.2 

This  ingenious  law  was  rendered  ineffective 
because  the  Japanese  kept  on  buying  and  leasing 
land  in  the  names  of  those  of  their  children  who  are 

1  See  Appendix  B. 

aFor  full  texts  of  land  laws  1913  and  1920  see  Appendixes 
CandD. 


140    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

citizens  of  this  country.  Moreover,  they  resorted 
to  the  formation  of  corporations  in  which  a  major 
ity  of  the  stock  was  owned  by  American  citizens. 

The  outcome  of  the  situation  was  the  adoption 
in  November  of  last  year  of  a  new  land  law  more 
carefully  framed.  The  new  law  naturally  aims  to 
correct  the  defects  which  led  to  the  evasion  of  the 
former  law.  It  is  in  substance  as  follows : 

(1)  All   aliens  not  eligible  to  citizenship  and 
whose  home  government  has  no  treaty  with  the 
United  States  providing  such  right  cannot  own 
or  lease  land ; 

(2)  All  such  aliens  cannot  become  members  or 
acquire  shares  of  stock  in  any  company,  associa 
tion,  or  corporation  owning  agricultural  land; 

(3)  These  aliens  cannot  become  guardians  of 
that  portion  of  the  estate  of  a  minor  which  consists 
of  property  which  they  are  inhibited  by  this  law 
from  possession  or  transfer; 

(4)  Any  real  property  hereafter  acquired  in  fee 
in  violation  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  by  aliens 
shall  escheat  to  and  become  the  property  of  the 
State  of  California. 

The  difference  between  the  old  and  the  new 
laws  is  that  in  the  new  law  evasion  is  made  entirely 
impossible  by  prohibiting  the  Japanese  from  buy 
ing  or  selling  land  in  the  names  of  their  children  or 
through  the  medium  of  corporations.  A  novel 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  141 

feature  of  the  new  law  is  that  it  forbids  the  three- 
year  lease  which  was  allowed  by  the  old  law. 

The  opponents  of  the  newly  enacted  law  claim 
that  it  is  unwise  because,  if  it  proves  effective,  it 
will  have  driven  a  large  number  of  capable  and 
industrious  farmers  out  of  agriculture,  thereby 
causing  no  little  inconvenience  to  the  people  in 
getting  an  abundant  supply  of  table  delicacies. 
Even  the  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Control 
admits  that  "the  annual  output  of  agricultural 
products  of  Japanese  consists  of  food  products 
practically  indispensable  to  the  State's  daily 
supply,"  and  adds  that  their  sudden  removal  is 
not  wise.1  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  law  fails — 
and  that  there  is  abundant  possibility  of  it  the 
sponsors  of  the  law  themselves  admit — critics 
insist  that  it  will  result  in  no  gain,  but  "it  merely 
persecutes  the  aliens  against  whom  it  is  directed, 
and  sows  the  seed  of  distrust  in  their  minds, "  and 
further  it  will  occasion  an  unnecessary  ill-feeling 
between  America  and  Japan.  Presenting  the 
reasons  for  opposing  the  new  land  measure,  the 
San  Francisco  Chamber  of  Commerce  stated : 

The  clause  denying  the  right  to  lease  agricultural 
lands  is  ineffective  in  operation.  It  may  prove  irri 
tating  to  the  Japanese  people,  but  it  will  not  prevent 
them  from  occupying  lands  for  agricultural  purposes 

1  California  and  the  Oriental,  p.  104. 


142     Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

under  cropping  contracts  for  personal  services,  which 
cannot  be  legally  prohibited  to  any  class  of  aliens. 


This  is  what  Governor  Stephens  referred  to  when 
he  confessed  that  the  law  can  be  evaded  by  legal 
subterfuge,  which  it  is  not  possible  for  the  State  to 
counteract.  And  California  has  no  lack  of  lawyers, 
who  are  resourceful  and  ready  enough  to  teach  the 
Japanese  the  technical  way  of  evading  the  law. 

The  advocates  of  the  new  law,  on  the  other  hand, 
argued  that  anything  is  better  than  nothing  to 
show  their  disapproval  of  Japanese  domination  in 
agriculture,  and  pointed  to  the  Japanese  law  re 
garding  foreign  land  ownership  as  an  example  of 
foreigners  not  being  allowed  to  own  land.  If  Japan 
does  not  permit  the  ownership  of  land  by  Ameri 
cans,  they  argue,  by  what  right  do ;  the  Japanese 
demand  the  privilege  in  America?  This  apparently 
does  not  hit  the  point  since  in  case  of  Japan  the 
prohibition  of  land-ownership  is  not  discrimination 
against  any  single  nation  or  people,  whereas  the 
case  of  California  is.  We  may,  however,  cursorily 
touch  here  upon  the  status  of  foreign  land  owner 
ship  in  Japan. 

Land  Laws  of  Japan. 

Under  present  regulations  there  are  three  ways 
in  which  foreigners  may  hold  land  in  Japan,  viz. : 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  143 

(1)  By  ordinary  lease  running  for  any  conven 
ient  term  and  renewable  at  the  will  of  the  lessee. 
The  rent  of  such  leased  property  is  liable  to  a 
review  by  the  courts,  after  a  certain  number  of 
years,  on  the  application  of  either  party ; 

(2)  A  so-called  superficies  title  may  be  secured 
in  all  parts  of  Japan,  save  what  is  called  the  colon 
ial  areas,  running  for  any  number  of  years.    Many 
such  titles  now  current  run  for  999  years.    These 
titles  give  as  complete  control  over  the  surface  of 
the  land  as  a  fee-simple  title  would  do. 

(3)  Foreigners  may  form  joint  stock  companies 
and  hold  land  for  the  purposes  indicated  by  their 
charters.    They  are  juridical  persons,  formed  under 
the  commercial  code  of  Japan,  and  are  regarded  just 
as  truly  Japanese  legal  persons  as  though  composed 
solely  of  Japanese.     It  will  thus  be  seen  that  in 
practice  foreigners  can  take  possession  of  land  in 
Japan  about  as  effectually  as  in  fee  simple. 

On  April  13,  1910,  the  Japanese  Diet  passed  a 
land  law  which  embodied,  among  others,  the 
following  provisions : 

Article  I.  Foreigners  domiciled  or  resident  in  Japan 
and  foreign  juridical  persons  registered  therein  shall 
enjoy  the  right  of  ownership  in  land,  provided  always 
that  in  the  countries  to  which  they  belong  such  right 
is  extended  to  Japanese  subjects,  and  Japanese  ju 
ridical  persons.  .  .  . 

Article  II.     Foreigners  and  foreign  juridical  persons 


144    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

shall  not  be  capable  of  enjoying  the  right  of  owner 
ship  in  land  in  the  following  districts:  First,  Hok 
kaido;  second,  Formosa;  third,  Karafuto;  fourth, 
districts  necessary  for  national  defense. 

Article  III.  In  case  a  foreigner  or  a  foreign  juridical 
person  owning  land  ceases  to  be  capable  of  enjoying 
the  right  of  ownership  in  land,  the  ownership  of  such 
land  shall  accrue  to  the  fiscus  [the  Imperial  Treasury], 
unless  he  disposes  of  it  within  a  period  of  one  year. 

Article  IV.  The  date  for  putting  the  present  law 
into  force  shall  be  determined  by  Imperial  ordinance. 


This  law  was  severely  criticized  by  both  liberals 
and  foreigners  on  account  of  its  too  conservative 
provisions,  and  as  a  consequence  it  was  not  promul 
gated  by  the  Emperor  for  the  time  being.  In  the 
legislative  session  of  1919,  the  Government  in 
troduced  to  the  Diet  a  revised  bill  embodying  more 
liberal  principles  and  omitting  all  features  in  the 
law  of  1910  considered  objectionable  by  foreigners. 
Unfortunately  the  Lower  House  was  suddenly 
dissolved  by  the  deadlock  encountered  on  the  issue 
of  universal  suffrage  before  the  proposed  law  was 
voted  on.  The  Japanese  Government,  it  is  re 
ported,  has  drafted  a  new  law  with  the  intention 
of  introducing  it  to  the  session  of  the  Diet  now 
sitting  (January,  1921),  the  notable  feature  of 
which  is  the  inclusion  of  Korea  and  other  terri 
tories  among  the  available  lands  for  ownership 
by  foreigners. 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  145 

Effect  of  the  Initiative  Bill. 

Already  there  are  indications  that  the  action  of 
California  has  had  its  effect  on  the  neighboring 
States.  Similar  legislation  is  mooted  in  Texas, 
Washington,  Oregon,  and  Nebraska.  When  we  con 
sider  that  in  those  States  the  number  of  Japanese 
is  very  small  and  the  amount  of  land-holding  is 
simply  negligible,  the  only  explanation  for  the 
proposal  is  the  influence  of  California,  which  has 
been  deliberately  strengthened  by  the  direct  appeal 
of  Governor  Stephens  to  other  States  for  coopera 
tion.  In  this  way  California  is  rather  making  the 
local  situation  worse,  for  by  limiting  the  scope 
of  discriminatory  activity  within  her  doors,  she 
might  have  found  a  remedy  for  relieving  the 
tension  found  therein  through  the  dispersal  of 
Japanese  into  other  States. 

ft t  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  enter  into 
a  detailed  examination  of  the  legal  aspects  and 
technicalities  of  the  new  land  law  voted  on  by  the 
California  electorate.  It  may  be  found  in  con 
travention  to  the  American  Constitution  by  de 
priving  certain  residents  legally  admitted  into  this 
country  of  the  "equal  protection  of  the  law"  as 
guaranteed  by  that  instrument.  The  Japanese 
Government  may  lay  before  the  Federal  Govern 
ment  a  formal  protest  against  the  land  law  on  the 
theory  that  it  infringes  on  the  Japanese- American 

10 


146    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

Treaty  of  1911,  by  running  counter  to  the  spirit  of 
fairness  pervading  the  document  in  withholding 
from  Japanese  aliens  the  rights  and  privileges  en 
joyed  by  aliens  of  other  nationalities.  Or  it  may 
be  the  intention  of  the  Washington  and  Tokyo 
Governments  to  reach  a  mutual  agreement  by 
concluding  a  new  treaty  which  will  specifically 
state  the  rights  to  be  conferred  upon  each  other's 
subjects,  so  that  subterfuge  will  no  longer  be 
possible,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  will  completely 
prevent  the  entrance  of  Japanese  immigrants. 
We  are  not  in  a  position  to  gauge  the  intent  and 
nature  of  the  proposed  treaty,  which  is  under 
stood  to  be  under  way  between  the  Japanese 
Embassy  and  the  State  Department,  while  it  is  in 
the  stage  of  negotiation  or  discussion.  Whatever 
may  be  the  nature  of  the  pourparler,  it  must  be 
based  on  the  conviction  that  neither  legal  conten 
tion  nor  diplomatic  dispute  will  ever  settle  the 
vexed  question. 

America  is  the  country  of  the  people,  and  the 
Government  is  powerless  unless  it  is  supported  by 
the  people.  The  key  to  the  solution,  accordingly, 
must  be  found  in  the  attitude  of  the  people  and 
not  exclusively  in  legal  or  diplomatic  arrangements. 
We  are  of  the  opinion,  therefore,  that  the  surest 
way  of  removing  the  difficulty  is  to  study  the 
causes  that  constitute  the  present  California  un- 


Facts  about  the  Japanese  in  California  147 

rest  and  endeavor  to  eliminate  them  so  far  as  it  is 
within  our  power  to  do  so.  Only  by  regaining  the 
genuine  friendship  of  the  people  of  California  in 
this  way  can  the  Japanese  in  that  State  expect  to 
free  themselves  from  the  unfortunate  unfriendly 
pressure. 


CHAPTER  IX 

ASSIMILATION 

Nationalism  and  Assimilation. 

IN  the  question  of  assimilation  we  find  the  heart 
of  the  Japanese  problem  in  California.  The 
reader  will  probably  recall  that,  in  discussing 
California's  effort  to  counteract  the  progress  of  the 
Japanese  in  agriculture,  we  stated  that  there  would 
be  no  ground  for  justification  of  the  recent  rigorous 
measure  except  on  the  assumption  that  the  Jap 
anese  are  unassimilable,  and  that  they  should  not, 
therefore;  be  allowed  to  flourish  in  that  State. 
He  will  also  remember  that  we  stated,  in  discussing 
the  Japanese  population  in  California,  that,  were 
it  not  for  the  apprehension  of  the  probable  im 
possibility  of  assimilating  the  Japanese,  their 
increase  in  number  either  in  California  or  in  the 
United  States  was  not  an  occasion  for  anxiety. 
These  arguments  implied  our  belief  that  the  entire 
problem  of  the  Japanese-California  situation  would 
finally  resolve  itself  to  one  crucial  point;  namely, 
the  question  of  assimilation.  It  is  our  profound 
conviction  that  if  it  be  established  that  the  Jap- 

148 


Assimilation  149 

anese  are  unassimilable,  then  decisive  steps- — 
much  more  decisive  than  any  so  far  adopted— 
should  be  taken  by  both  America  and  Japan  in 
order  to  forestall  a  possible  tragedy  in  the  future. 

We  hold  this  view  because  the  present  state  of 
world  affairs  allows  us  to  entertain  no  other  opinion. 
As  long  as  our  world  order  is  such  that  its  con 
stituent  units  are  highly  organized,  composite 
nations  with  independent  rights  and  marked  in 
dividualities,  it  is  only  natural  that  each  nation 
should  demand  that  foreigners  entering  for  the 
purpose  of  permanent  settlement  conform  in  a 
large  measure  to  the  social  order  and  ideals  of  the 
country.  In  case  this  is  deemed  impossible,  the 
nation  opposes  any  large  influx  of  foreign  races  be 
cause  of  the  necessity  of  maintaining  its  national 
unity  and  harmony. 

Naturally,  this  tendency  of  conserving  strict 
national  integrity  is  strongest  among  the  oldest 
and  most  highly  organized  States,  and  weakest 
among  the  new  and  loosely  integrated  countries. 
Countries  like  Japan  and  England,  which  have 
long,  proud  histories  and  traditions,  and  which  are 
highly  organized,  are  more  strict  about  the  way 
they  take  foreigners  into  their  households.  On  the 
other  hand,  new  countries  like  Australia  and  the 
South  American  republics,  which  have  short 
histories  and  few  traditions,  are  more  or  less  liberal 


15°    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

in  admitting  foreigners.  This  truth  has  been 
exemplified  by  the  history  of  the  United  States. 
She  has  shown  a  marked  laxity  in  this  regard 
during  the  colonial  and  growing  periods;  but  as 
soon  as  she  achieved  a  more  perfect  national  unity 
and  consciousness,  she  began  to  manifest  a  strong 
tendency  toward  integration,  exerting  her  energy 
on  the  one  hand  upon  consolidation  of  her  popula 
tion  and  on  the  other  upon  excluding  " squatters" 
who  would  not  readily  assimilate. 

Whether  or  not  such  a  nationalistic  policy  may 
be  considered  just,  and  whatever  change  the  future 
may  witness  in  this  regard,  the  fact  remains  that 
not  a  single  nation  in  the  world  at  present  discards 
or  rejects  the  policy  in  practice.  In  the  face  of  such 
a  situation  the  only  alternative  for  the  Japanese 
in  the  United  States,  when  they  obstinately  cling 
to  their  own  ways  of  living  and  thinking,  would 
be  to  go  elsewhere. 

This  conviction  of  ours  should  not  be  confused 
with  the  hasty,  groundless  conjecture  that  the 
Japanese  are  a  race  utterly  impossible  of  assimila 
tion  to  American  ways  by  nature  and  constitu 
tion.  Most  of  the  careless  agitators  who  put 
forth  statements  to  this  effect  start  from  the 
wrong  end  in  their  reasoning.  They  assume  what 
ought  to  be  proven,  and  forthwith  proceed  to 
formulate  a  policy  on  this  assumption.  They 


Assimilation  151 

assume  that  the  Japanese  are  unassimilable  and 
conclude  that,  therefore,  they  should  not  be  given 
an  opportunity  to  progress.  This  is  analogous  to 
saying  that  because  a  child  is  ignorant  he  should 
not  be  sent  to  school,  forgetting  that  the  very 
ignorance  of  the  child  is  due  to  the  fact  that  he 
has  been  denied  an  education.  They  fail  to  see 
that  their  conclusion  is  the  very  cause  of  their 
premises.  What  we  maintain  is  that  when  the 
Japanese  shall  have  proved  unassimilable,  after  all 
means  for  their  assimilation  have  been  exhausted, 
they  should  then  be  persuaded  to  give  up  the  idea 
of  establishing  themselves  in  America. 

Meaning  of  "  Assimilation." 

A  great  deal  of  confusion  arises  from  the  ambi 
guity  of  the  term  "assimilation.*'  Its  interpreta 
tions  vary  from  the  idea  of  a  most  superficial 
imitation  of  dress  and  manners  to  that  of  an 
uncontrollable  process  of  biological  resemblance 
or  identity.  Those  using  the  term  in  the  former 
sense,  in  face  of  the  fact  that  the  Japanese  in  their 
midst  dress,  talk,  and  live  like  Americans,  consider 
it  indisputable  that  they  are  assimilable.  Those 
who  use  the  word  in  a  narrow  sense  of  ethnological 
similarity,  on  the  contrary,  insist  with  equal  con 
viction  that  the  assimilation  of  the  Japanese  is 
absolutely  impossible.  Neither  is  wrong  in  reason- 


152     Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

ing,  for  assimilation,  according  to  the  accepted 
diction,  means  the  process  of  bringing  to  a  resemb 
lance,  conformity  or  identity — it  is  a  relative  term. 
Hence,  in  order  to  determine  whether  it  is  possible 
for  the  Japanese  to  become  Americanized,  it  is 
necessary  to  find  a  standard  by  which  the  process 
can  safely  be  gauged.  Without  this  it  is  wholly 
absurd  to  say  either  that  they  are  or  are  not 
assimilable.  If  the  standard  be  fixed  at  physi 
cal  identity  with  Americans,  the  Americanization 
of  the  Japanese  is  hopeless — at  least  for  a  few 
generations;  but  if  it  be  fixed  at  conformity 
with  American  customs  and  social  order,  the 
Japanese  have  to  a  certain  degree  already  been 
assimilated. 

How  is  the  criterion  to  be  determined?  Perhaps 
it  may  be  found,  like  the  standard  of  our  morality, 
in  practical  usage;  that  is,  in  the  accepted  usages 
and  customs  of  the  United  States.  Here  we  can 
do  no  better  than  point  out  the  traditional  spirit  of 
cosmopolitanism,  or  firm  adherence  to  the  policy 
of  racial  non-discrimination,  which  was  sustained 
even  at  the  costliest  of  sacrifices  and  which  is  in 
scribed  in  the  immortal  fourteenth  amendment  of 
the  Constitution,  which  states  that  "All  persons 
born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States  and  sub 
ject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof  are  citizens  of  the 
United  States  and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside." 


Assimilation  153 

If  the  supreme  law  as  well  as  the  traditions  and 
customs  of  the  land  do  not  deny,  on  account  of 
color  or  race,  any  person  born  in  America  the  right 
of  citizenship,  it  is  apparently  un-American  to 
make  racial  similarity  or  conformity  the  standard 
of  assimilability. 

A  nation,  however,  cannot  maintain  its  own 
rights  and  honor  among  the  family  of  nations 
without  upholding  its  individuality.  But  America's 
individuality  does  not  consist  in  ethnological  unity 
alone.  It  consists  more  in  cultural  and  spiritual 
solidarity.  America  upholds  her  dignity  and 
national  rights  with  the  strength  of  that  patriot 
ism  of  her  people  which  is  born  of  their  active 
sharing  in  her  culture  and  ideals,  as  well  as  of  their 
common  experiences  of  American  life.  Clearly, 
then,  one  criterion  of  Americanization  is  unmixed 
devotion  and  allegiance  to  the  cause  and  welfare 
of  the  United  States — devotion  and  allegiance  not 
blindly  compelled  by  force  of  imposition,  but  born 
of  voluntary  and  unrestricted  participation  in 
American  culture  and  ideals,  religion,  and  industry ; 
in  short,  in  the  entire  American  life.  More  con 
cisely  expressed,  the  required  standard  of  assimila 
tion  in  America  is  an  active  share  in  American  life 
as  a  whole  to  such  an  extent  that  unmixed  love 
and  the  will  to  devote  self  to  the  United  States 
are  no  longer  resistible. 


X54    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

The  essence  of  Americanization  was  elucidated 
in  simple  and  beautiful  words  by  President  Wilson 
in  his  memorable  speech  delivered  at  Philadelphia 
in  1915  before  an  audience  of  naturalized  citizens 
of  that  city.  He  said  in  part : 

.  .  .  This  is  the  only  country  in  the  world  which 
experiences  this  constant  and  repeated  rebirth.  Other 
countries  depend  upon  the  multiplication  of  their  own 
native  people.  This  country  is  constantly  drinking 
strength  out  of  new  sources  by  the  voluntary  associa 
tion  with  it  of  great  bodies  of  strong  men  and  forward- 
looking  women  out  of  other  lands.  And  so  by  the  gift 
of  the  free  will  of  independent  people  it  is  being  con 
stantly  renewed  from  generation  to  generation  by  the 
same  process  by  which  it  was  originally  created. 

You  have  just  taken  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
United  States.  Of  allegiance  to  whom?  ...  to  a 
great  ideal,  to  a  great  body  of  principles,  to  a  great 
hope  of  the  human  race.  .  .  .  You  cannot  dedicate 
yourself  to  America  unless  you  become  in  every 
respect  and  with  every  purpose  of  your  will  thorough 
Americans.  You  cannot  become  Americans  if  you 
think  of  yourselves  in  groups.  America  does  not  con 
sist  of  groups.  A  man  who  thinks  of  himself  as  belong 
ing  to  a  particular  national  group  in  America  has  not 
yet  become  an  American.  .  .  . 

My  urgent  advice  to  you  would  be,  not  only  always 
to  think  first  of  America,  but  always,  also,  to  think 
first  of  humanity.  You  do  n6t  love  humanity  if  you 
seek  to  divide  humanity  into  jealous  camps.  Human 
ity  can  be  welded  together  only  by  love,  by  sympathy, 
by  justice,  not  by  jealousy  and  hatred. 


Assimilation  1 55 

Biological  Assimilation. 

With  this  clarified  meaning  of  assimilation  or 
Americanization,  let  us  examine  the  assimilability 
of  the  Japanese.  First  of  all,  we  shall  take  up  the 
matter  of  racial  amalgamation.  Immediately  the 
questions  arise,  "Is  it  possible  to  amalgamate 
the  Japanese?  Is  it  desirable  to  do  so?  Is  it  neces 
sary  to  do  so?" 

To  the  first  question,  paradoxical  as  it  may  seem, 
careful  observations  compel  us  to  reply  that  it  is, 
and  that  it  is  not,  possible  to  amalgamate  the 
Japanese  blood  with  the  American.  Just  as  there 
is  no  national  boundary  in  science,  so  there  is  no 
human  barrier  in  marriage.  Truth  and  love  appear 
to  transcend  all  natural  and  artificial  obstacles. 
That  love  defies  racial  difference  has  been  amply 
proven  in  the  United  States,  where  all  races  are  in 
the  process  of  being  fused  together.  It  has  no 
less  conclusively  been  proven  by  the  number  of 
happy  marriages  that  have  taken  place  between 
Americans  and  Japanese  in  this  country  and  in 
Japan.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  unthinkable  that 
the  Japanese  should  begin  wholesale  intermarriages 
with  Americans  in  the  near  future,  to  the  extent 
of  losing  their  racial  distinction.  This  is  unthink 
able  because  of  the  social  stigma — and  Americans 
as  well  as  Japanese  are  extremely  sensitive  on  the 
question  of  social  environment — and  the  legal  and 


156    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

economic  handicaps  which  cause  thoughtful  per 
sons  of  both  nationalities,  who  take  into  considera 
tion  the  welfare  of  themselves  as  well  as  of  their 
descendants,  to  refrain  from  indulging  in  uncus 
tomary  marriages.  It  is  more  likely,  therefore, 
that  while  here  and  there  sporadic  cases  of  inter 
marriage  will  continue  to  take  place,  and  that  such 
cases  will  gradually  increase  as  the  Japanese  raise 
the  degree  of  Americanization,  it  is  wholly  out  of 
the  question  that  under  the  present  conditions  of 
social,  economic,  and  political  encumbrances,  the 
practice  will  prevail  to  any  large  extent. 

This  being  the  case,  our  second  query — "Is 
intermarriage  desirable?" — appears  superfluous. 
Indeed,  had  it  not  been  for  the  dangerous  dogma 
tism  inculcated  by  some  willful  propagandists  that 
the  result  of  intermarriage  between  Americans  and 
Japanese  is  "the  germ  of  the  mightiest  problem 
that  ever  faced  this  State;  a  problem  that  will 
make  the  black  problem  in  the  South  look  white, " ' 
the  subject  would  be  purely  an  academic  one.  To 
allow  this  sort  of  baseless  assertion  to  go  un 
challenged  is  extremely  dangerous,  because  it 
exaggerates  an  unimportant  point  to  misrepresent 
maliciously  the  whole  question  of  the  Japanese  in 
the  United  States. 

1  Mr.  Newman  in  the  hearings  held  at  Sacramento,  California, 
in  1913. 


Assimilation  157 

The  conclusions  of  able  observers,  such  as  Dr. 
Gulick  and  Professor  Millis,  invariably  confirm 
the  fact  that,  as  far  as  the  ordinary  means  of 
observation  go,  the  offspring  of  a  Japanese  and 
American  couple  is  in  no  respect  inferior  to  those 
of  either  American  or  Japanese  unmixed  descent. 
Professor  Millis  states: 

So  far  as  experience  shows,  there  is  nothing  inher-1 
ently  bad  in  race  mixture,  if  it  takes  place  under  nor 
mal  conditions,  and  neither  race  is  generally  regarded 
as  inferior  and  the  offspring  therefore  given  inferior 
rank,  as  in  the  case  of  the  negro. x 

From  his  extensive  association  with  Japanese,  Dr. 
Gulick  has  been  able  to  make  some  valuable  ob 
servations  on  this  topic.  He  states  in  his  impor 
tant  book,  The  American  Japanese  Problem: 

The  offspring  of  mixed  marriages  are  oftentimes 
practically  indistinguishable  from  Caucasians.  The 
color  distinction  is  the  first  to  break  down.  The  Jap 
anese  hair  and  eye  exert  a  stronger  influence.  So  far 
as  the  observation  of  the  writer  goes,  there  is  a  ten 
dency  to  striking  beauty  in  Americo- Japanese.  The 
mental  ability,  also,  of  the  offspring  of  Japanese  and 
white  marriages  is  not  inferior  to  that  of  children  of 
either  race. 2 

These  observations  are  valuable  in  refuting  the 
kind  of  vile  allegations  we  have  quoted.  But 

1  Millis'  The  Japanese  Problem  in  the  United  States,  p.  275. 
'Gulick,  S.  L.,  The  American  Japanese  Problem, -p.  153. 


Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

because  of  the  limited  number  of  cases  observed, 
and  the  necessarily  unscientific  character  of  the 
observation,  the  utilization  of  these  studies  must 
be  confined  to  pointing  out  the  absurdity  of  the 
opposite  extreme  dogmatism  and  not  extended  to 
the  constructive  argument. 

Even  less  reliable  are  the  opinions  of  speculative 
biologists  who  by  the  use  of  analogy — that  is,  by 
examples  of  hybridization  of  plants  and  animals — 
try  to  throw  light  on  the  subject  of  racial  inter 
marriage.  In  general,  the  assertions  of  these 
biologists  agree  that  the  intermixture  of  races  too 
far  apart  is  undesirable  because  it  results  in  a 
breakdown  of  the  inherent  characteristics  of  each, 
but  that  the  combination  of  races  slightly  different 
is  more  desirable  than  intra-racial  marriage  because 
it  tends  to  invigorate  the  stock.  To  this  extent, 
opinions  concur;  but  as  to  the  question  what  races 
may  be  considered  similar  and  what  races  different 
they  begin  to  disagree.  Most  of  them  divide  the 
human  races  by  the  color  of  the  skin,  and  state 
that  the  case  of  the  black  and  white  races  is  that  of 
extreme  intermixture,  and  cite  that  between  two 
white  races  as  a  desirable  one.  When  they  are 
pressed  to  pass  a  verdict  on  the  result  of  mixture 
between  the  yellow  and  white  races,  most  of  them 
give  only  vacillating  replies,  as  in  the  following 
extracts: 


Assimilation  159 

Yellow-white  amalgamation  may  not  be  fraught 
with  the  evil  consequences  in  the  wake  of  the  yellow- 
black  and  the  white-black  crosses.  At  the  same  time, 
it  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  Caucasians  and  the 
Mongolians  are  far  apart  in  descent,  and  that  the 
advantages  to  be  gained  by  either  in  this  breaking  up 
of  superior  hereditary  complexes  developed  during  an 
extended  past  are  not  clear. l 

Professor  Castle  is  more  precise  in  his  assertion. 
He  says: 

Mankind  consists  of  a  single  species;  at  least  no 
races  exist  so  distinct  that  when  they  are  crossed  sterile 
progeny  are  produced. 

Offspring  produced  by  crossing  such  races  do  not 
lack  in  vigor,  size,  or  reproductive  capacity.  .  .  . 

Racial  crosses,  if  so  conducted  as  not  to  interfere 
with  social  inheritance,  may  be  expected  to  produce 
on  the  whole  intermediates  as  regards  physical  and 
psychic  characters. 2 

Here,  Professor  Castle  touches  on  the  important 
question  involved;  namely,  social  inheritance. 
Indeed,  human  civilization  is  not  all  that  is  con 
tained  in  germplasm.  Mankind  developed  and 
accumulated  an  elaborate  system  of  living  condi 
tions  which  operate  independently  of  biological 
processes.  However  wonderful  a  brain  a  child  has, 
he  will  have  to  remain  a  savage  if  he  is  born  in  a 

1  Jones  and  East,  Inbreeding  and  Outbreeding— Their  Genetic 
and  Sociological  Significance,  p.  255. 

3  W.  E.  Castle,  Genetics  and  Eugenics,  pp.  233-38. 


160    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

savage  tribe  of  Africa  or  in  a  place  where  the  level 
of  culture  is  extremely  low.  In  discussing  the 
possible  effect  of  intermarriage  upon  progeny, 

f  therefore,  the  cultural  level  of  parents  and  their 
environment  must  first  of  all  be  taken  into  con- 

\  sideration.  It  is  here  that  we  find  ground  for 
opposition  to  intermarriage  between  Japanese  and 
Americans  at  present.  With  some  marked  excep 
tions,  the  cultural  standard  attained  by  the  mixed 
couples  has  on  the  whole  been  not  of  a  very  high 
order.  This  is  inevitable  when  we  consider  that 
intermarriage  between  Japanese  and  Americans 
has  not  yet  received  full  social  sanction,  thus 
obstructing  free  play  to  the  process  of  natural  selec 
tion.  Aside  from  the  purely  biological  considera 
tion,  this  want  of  social  approval  of  intermarriage, 
with  its  concomitant,  an  unenviable  social  position 
of  the  parents,  results  in  an  undesirable  environ 
ment  for  the  offspring. 

The  welfare  of  their  progeny  is  not  the  only 
determining  point  of  intermarriage.  Is  it,  then, 
sufficiently  happy  for  the  couple?  Our  observa 
tions  lead  us  to  answer  in  the  negative.  To  be  sure, 
there  are  cases  of  fortunate  marriages  in  which  it 
seems  impossible  for  the  couple  to  be  happier. 
But,  on  the  whole,  the  husband  and  the  wife  often 
find  it  difficult  to  harmonize  their  sentiments  and 
ideals  on  account  of  different  antecedents.  The 


Assimilation  161 

inharmony  seems  to  grow  as  the  couple  advance  in 
age,  rendering  their  lives  miserable.  The  greatest 
stumbling  block,  however,  seems  to  be  economic. 
The  Japanese  in  the  United  States  who  are  engaged 
in  the  ordinary  walks  of  life  are  offered  very  little 
opportunities  save  in  farming  on  a  small  scale  and 
in  petty  businesses.  Regardless  of  their  ambition 
or  ability,  the  Japanese  cannot  get  what  are  con 
sidered  in  America  good  positions.  Hence,  neither 
their  positions  nor  incomes  improve  very  rapidly— 
perhaps  no  advance  is  made.  Most  American 
women  are  not  satisfied  to  follow  a  blind  alley. 
They  turn  back  and  get  a  divorce.  Exceptional 
cases,  of  course,  are  found  in  the  American  - 
Japanese  couples,  whose  husbands  have  won  dis 
tinction  and  wealth  by  extraordinary  personal 
ability  or  by  scientific  or  literary  attainments,  or 
by  representing  great  firms  of  Japan. 

Our  discussion  of  intermarriage  seems  to  suggest 
that  it  is  not  likely  to  occur,  for  some  time  at  least, 
in  large  numbers;  that  as  far  as  hereditary  effect 
on  progeny  is  concerned,  it  is  wholly  premature 
to  pass  any  judgment  at  present  because  of  our 
limited  knowledge;  but  that  the  social  as  well  as 
the  economic  position  of  the  contemporary  Jap 
anese  in  America  does  not  seem  conducive  to  the 
happiness  of  either  the  children  of  such  unions  or 
their  parents. 


1 62    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

Is  Assimilation  without  Intermarriage  Possible? 

Let  us  now  consider  the  third  question: — "Is 
intermarriage  necessary  for  the  assimilation  of  the 
Japanese?"  The  people,  who  argue  that  the  Jap 
anese  should  be  discriminated  against  because  they 
are  biologically  unamalgable,  thereby  commit 
themselves  to  maintaining  that  intermarriage  is 
the  only  way  by  which  Japanese  may  become  true 
Americans.  Governor  Stephens  states  that  Cali 
fornia's  effort  at  Japanese  exclusion  is  "based 
entirely  on  the  principle  of  race  self-preservation 
and  the  ethnological  impossibility  of  successfully 
assimilating  this  constantly  increasing  flow  of 
Oriental  blood."1  Without  questioning  whence 
he  derived  the  authority  for  the  assertion  that  the 
Japanese  are  ethnologically  impossible  of  assimi 
lation,  we  wish  to  refute  the  contention  that  the 
Japanese  are  unassimilable  because  they  are 
racially  impossible  of  amalgamation.  We  believe 
that  racial  amalgamation  is  not  a  prerequisite  of 
assimilation.  We  have  already  shown  that  the 
customs  and  traditions,  as  well  as  the  supreme 
law  of  the  United  States,  do  not  demand  that  all 
Americans  be  of  one  and  the  same  race.  This  fact 
alone  is  sufficient  condemnation  of  those  baseless 
utterances  which  seek  an  excuse  for  failure  and 
negligence  in  successfully  fulfilling  the  duty  of 

1  California  and  the  Oriental,  p.  15. 


Assimilation  163 

Americanizing  aliens  by  the  camouflage  of  race 
difference. 

But  there  are  other  powerful  reasons  to  support 
our  view  that  race  intermixture  is  not  the  only  way 
to  Americanize  the  Japanese.  And  this  we  find  in 
the  strong  influence  of  environment  on  the  physical 
and  mental  make-up  of  man.  Perhaps  the  most 
significant  anthropological  contribution  of  recent 
times  is  the  establishment  of  the  truth  that  race 
is  not  a  fixed  thing,  but  that  it  is  a  changeable 
thing;  changeable  according  to  the  conditions  of 
environment.  Professor  Boas,  a  recognized  au 
thority  on  anthropology,  found,  in  a  strictly 
scientific  investigation  concerning  the  changes  in 
bodily  form  of  immigrants  and  their  descents  in 
America,  that  aliens  change  considerably  in  physi 
cal  form  after  they  come  to  America.  His  con 
clusions  are: 

The  investigation  has  shown  much  more  than  was 
anticipated,  and  the  results,  so  far  as  worked  out,  may 
be  summarized  as  follows : 

The  head  form,  which  has  always  been  considered  as 
one  of  the  most  stable  and  permanent  characteristics 
of  human  races,  undergoes  far-reaching  changes  due 
to 'the  transfer  of  races  of  Europe  to  American  soil. 

The  influence  of  American  environment  upon  the 
descendants  of  immigrants  increases  with  the  time 
that  the  immigrants  have  lived  in  this  country  before 
the  birth  of  their  children. 


164    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

The  differences  in  type  between  the  American -born 
descendant  of  the  immigrant  and  the  European-born 
immigrant  develop  in  early  childhood  and  persist 
throughout  life. 

Among  the  East  European  Hebrews  the  American 
environment,  even  in  the  congested  parts  of  the  city, 
has  brought  about  a  general  more  favorable  develop 
ment  of  the  race,  which  is  expressed  in  the  increased 
height  of  body  (stature)  and  the  weight  of  the 
children. 

There  are  not  only  decided  changes  in  the  rate  of 
development  of  immigrants,  but  there  is  also  a  far- 
reaching  change  in  the  type — a  change  which  cannot 
be  ascribed  to  selection  or  mixture,  but  which  can  only 
be  explained  as  due  directly  to  the  influence  of  en 
vironment.  We  are,  therefore,  compelled  to  draw  the 
conclusion  that  if  these  traits  change  under  the 
influence  of  environment,  presumably  none  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  human  types  that  come  to  America 
remain  stable. * 

A  very  similar  result  has  been  reached  by  Dr. 
Fishberg  in  his  study2  of  the  Jews  in  America,  in 
which  he  found  that  the  physical  features  of  the 
Jews  in  the  United  States  are  changing  consider 
ably  as  the  result  of  change  in  social  elements. 

Because  of  lack  of  scientifically  established  data 
pertaining  to  the  physical  change  of  Japanese 
descendants  in  America,  we  forbear  from  making 

'"Changes  in  Bodily  Form  of  Descendants  of  Immigrants." 
Senate  Document  No.  208,  pp.  7-54. 

3  The  J<7ws:  A  Study  of  Race  and  Environment. 


Assimilation  165 

any  bold  assertion  on  that  topic.  Yet,  even  to  the* 
casual  observer,  it  seems  almost  undeniable  that 
American-born  Japanese  children  are  fast  depart 
ing  from  the  type  which  their  parents  represent, 
thus  corroborating  the  truth  discovered  by  scien 
tists.  The  Japanese  Educational  Association  of 
San  Francisco  once  conducted  an  extensive  physi 
cal  examination  of  Japanese  children  in  twenty 
different  grammar  schools  in  California,  and  found 
(i)  that  they  are  generally  superior  in  physical 
development  to  children  of  corresponding  ages  in 
Japan ;  (2)  that  in  height  they  are  from  one  to  two 
inches  taller  than  children  in  Nippon ;  (3)  that  in 
weight  they  are  from  three  to  seven  pounds 
heavier;  (4)  that  they  have  fairer  skin  when  com 
pared  with  that  of  their  parents  born  in  Japan; 
(5)  that  their  hair  is  dark  brown  and  not  jet  black, 
as  is  that  of  their  parents ;  and  (6)  that  their  general 
posture  is  much  better  than  that  commonly  seen 
among  the  children  of  Japan.1 

These  purely  bodily  changes  of  American-born 
descents  may  be  attributed  to  the  difference  in 
diet,  in  mode  of  living,  in  climate,  and  in  the 
mysterious  power  of  the  social  milieu,  of  whose 
influence  upon  the  physiology  of  man  we  are  yet 
uninformed.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  America 
is  a  wonderful  melting  pot  which  does  not  depend, 

1  See  Appendix  A. 


1 66    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

in  its  functions,  solely  upon  the  biological  process 
of  cross-breeding,  but  also  in  a  good  measure  upon 
the  social  and  natural  process  of  automatic  con 
formity  to  type. 

Cultural  Assimilation. 

The  real  criteria  of  Americanization  being,  as 
we  have  seen,  a  genuine  patriotism  and  cultural 
refinement,  it  is  in  the  light  of  these  two  points, 
more  than  in  any  other  regard,  that  the  question 
of   Japanese    assimilability    must    be    examined. 
Patriotism  is  a  peculiar  emotion  manifesting  itself 
in  love  of  one's  own  country,  in  willingness  to 
devote  one's  self  for  the  maintenance  of  national 
honor  and  welfare.    It  arises  in  us  from  our  asso 
ciation,  since  early  childhood,  with  things  that 
surround  us.    We  love  things  that  we  are  used  to; 
we  cherish  the  mountains,  rivers,  and  trees  among 
which  we  were  brought  up;  we  hold  dear  the 
friends  and  people  with  whom  we  associated  in  our 
early  childhood,  and  as  we  grow  mature,  we  take 
pride  in  finding  ourselves  members  not  only  of 
local  communities  and  societies  of  various  sorts  but 
also  of  the  family  of  a  great  nation  whose  ideals 
and  history  we  inherit.    These  and  numerous  other 
things  become  a  part  of  our  life  for  which  we  do  not 
hesitate  to  fight,  and  if  necessary  to  lay  down  our 
lives. 


Assimilation  167 

This  suggests  that  two  things  are  necessary  for 
the  genesis  of  patriotism — native  birth  and  a  free 
sharing  in  the  goods  of  life.  While  no  generaliza 
tion  can  be  made  off-hand,  introspection  reveals 
that,  when  we  migrate  to  another  country  after 
we  have  grown  up,  it  seems  well-nigh  impossible 
to  find  ourselves  emotionally  attached  as  closely 
to  the  adopted  country  as  to  the  country  of  our 
birth.  To  be  born  in  a  country  is  the  strongest 
factor  in  one's  patriotism.  The  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  in  claiming  all  persons  born  in 
America  as  its  citizens  is  clearly  a  product  of  master 
minds.  Nativity  alone,  however,  is  not  often  suf 
ficient  to  enkindle  the  fire  of  patriotism  in  our 
hearts.  In  the  slave,  to  whom  most  of  the  goods 
of  life  were  denied,  to  whom  no  active  share  in 
communal  life  was  allowed,  who  was  treated  not  as 
a  member  of  the  nation  but  as  a  tool,  could  mere 
nativity  arouse  strong  love  for  his  country?  Only 
when  the  child  is  brought  up  in  an  environment  of 
friendly  spirit,  encouragement,  and  sympathy  does 
he  learn  to  identify  himself  with  the  country. 

How  do  we  find  the  patriotism  of  the  Japanese 
in  America?  Are  they  patriotic  in  relation  to  the 
United  States?  For  all  those  Japanese  who  came 
to  America  as  immigrants  of  mature  age  with  the 
prime  object  of  making  money,  the  answer  must 
be  made  in  the  negative.  Born  and  reared  in  the 


168     Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

beautiful  country  of  Nippon  among  a  most  hospit 
able  people,  their  love  of  Japan  is  surely  stronger 
than  their  love  of  America.  Trained  and  educated 
in  the  customs  and  traditions  of  Japan,  imbued 
with  the  belief,  ideas,  and  ideals  that  are  peculiar  to 
Japan,  they  would  not  know  even  how  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  opportunity,  supposing  they  were 
granted  the  rights  and  the  freedom  to  share  in  the 
now  forbidden  privileges.  To  complete  the  in 
hibition,  there  are  all  sorts  of  handicaps  placed  on 
them,  making  it  unthinkable  that  they  should  love 
this  country.  They  cannot  vote,  they  cannot  get 
public  positions,  and  now  they  can  neither  own  nor 
lease  the  land  in  California.  No;  the  Japanese 
immigrants  in  America  do  not  love  America  more 
than  they  love  Japan. 

Assimilability  of  Japanese  Immigrants. 

How,  then,  about  their  cultural  conditions?  It 
is  impossible  here  to  compare  the  culture  of  the 
Japanese  en  masse  with  that  of  other  people.  We 
can  take  only  a  few  specific  points  and  see  how  they 
stand.  Of  course,  in  the  absence  of  accurate  data 
our  conclusions  are  necessarily  unscientific. 

It  is  often  alleged  that  the  Japanese  in  the 
United  States  have  a  different  standard  of  morality 
from  that  of  the  Americans,  and  as  evidence  of 
this  allegation  the  attitude  of  Japanese  men  to- 


r 


Assimilation  169 

wards  women  is  pointed  out.  Japanese  men  are 
really  "bossy"  in  their  attitude  toward  women, 
but  that  is  the  outcome  of  custom  and  should  not 
be  charged  against  their  morals.  They  are  often 
accused  of  being  tricky,  untrustworthy.  We  have 
already  seen  that  there  have  been  cases  that  jus 
tify  such  accusations,  but  that  the  cause  was 
mostly  due  to  their  ignorance  of  legal  processes 
and  obligations,  in  which  they  sadly  lack  training. 
On  the  whole,  the  Japanese  in  America  are  law- 
abiding;  they  very  rarely  become  public  charges, 
and  are  peaceful  and  industrious.  These  facts 
even  the  most  uncompromising  Japanese  exclu- 
sionist,  Mr.  J.  M.  Inman,  admits  as  true,  and 
states  further  that  they  are  "sober,  industrious, 
peaceful,  and  law-abiding,  and  contain  within  their 
population  neither  anarchists,  bomb-throwers, 
Reds,  nor  I.  W.  W.'s."1 

That  the  Japanese  in  America  have  been  able 
to  make  rapid  progress  in  the  Christian  religion 
has  been  due  to  the  generous  aid  and  wise  direc 
tion  of  the  American  churches.  Within  less  than 
thirty  years  Christianity  has  become  deeply  rooted 
among  the  Japanese  communities,  exerting  the 
most  wholesome  and  powerful  influence  in  up 
lifting  their  living  conditions.  In  1911,  the  Den 
Do  Dan,  or  Japanese  Inter-Denominational  Mis- 

1  The  Forum,  January,  1921,  p.  3. 


170    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

sion  Board,  was  organized  with  a  view  to  carry 
ing  on  a  systematic  campaign  for  evangelistic  as 
well  as  community  service.  The  Mission  Board 
has  been  successful  in  propagating  Christianity 
among  the  Japanese.  This  is  clearly  shown  by  the 
fact  that  at  the  present  time  there  are  sixty-one 
Protestant  churches  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  besides 
fifty-seven  Sunday  schools.  The  greatest  success 
of  the  Board,  however,  has  been  attained  in  the 
field  of  practical  social  service,  where  the  organi 
zation  of  young  people's  Christian  associations,  the 
campaign  against  gambling  and  other  vices,  relief 
work  among  the  needy,  and  the  promotion  of  Ameri 
canization,  have  been  successfully  carried  out.1 
•r  Judging  from  the  small  percentage  of  illiteracy 
and  the  complete  system  of  Japanese  compulsory 
education,  the  Japanese  in  America  do  not  seem 
to  be  much  behind  the  corresponding  elements  in 
the  American  population  in  average  intelligence. 
Only  in  English  are  they  markedly  weak.  The 
importance  of  a  knowledge  of  the  language  in 
assimilation  can  hardly  be  exaggerated.  It  is  the 
gate  through  which  the  alien  can  arrive  at  an  under 
standing  of  American  institutions  and  culture. 
The  weakness  of  the  Japanese  in  English  is  chiefly 

1  For  this  as  well  as  other  information  the  authors  are  indebted 
to  Mr.  S.  Kusama,  who  furnished  us  with  the  materials  which 
were  carefully  prepared  by  him  from  first-hand  research  in  Cali 
fornia. 


Assimilation  171 

due  to  the  radical  difference  of  the  language  from 
their  own.  Statistics  indicate,  however,  a  decided 
increase  in  the  number  of  those  who  can  command 
English.-' The  census  of  1900  showed  that  less  than 
40  per  cent,  of  the  Japanese  in  America  could 
speak  English,  but  in  the  census  of  1910  the  rate 
increased  to  61  per  cent.1  The  rate  for  foreign- 
born  whites  in  1910  was  77  per  cent. 

The  economic  status  of  the  Japanese  appears  to 
be  about  the  same  as  that  of  European  immigrants. 
This  is  indisputable  from  the  sheer  fact  that  the 
earnings  of  both  are  about  the  same.  The  only 
difference  is  that  the  Japanese  show  a  tendency  to 
mediocrity  of  earning  power  without  becoming 
either  paupers  or  millionaires.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  while  there  is  an  abundance  of  work 
offered  to  Japanese  which  enables  them  to  earn  a 
comfortable  living,  all  avenues  for  a  greater  econo 
mic  success  are  closed  to  them.  No  sooner  do  the 
Japanese  show  signs  of  some  small  success  in  agri 
culture  than  the  privilege  to  till  the  soil  is  denied 
them.  A  similar  restraint  is  now  being  attempted 
on  the  Japanese  progress  in  fishing  in  California. 
In  a  sense,  economic  welfare  is  the  foundation  of 
cultural  and  spiritual  progress,  and  to  be  denied 
the  opportunity  to  make  progress  in  this  field  is  a 
heavy  disadvantage. 

1  Bureau  of  Census  Bulletin  127,  p.  12. 


172    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

The  gravest  defect  of  the  Japanese  is  their  lack 
of  training  in  democratic  institutions.  Having 
been  given  little  opportunity  to  share  in  public  or 
political  activities  in  Japan,  their  understanding 
and  training  in  civic  duties  is  notoriously  weak. 
Obviously  this  must  hinder  the  process  of  Ameri 
canization  to  a  great  extent.  To  counteract  this 
weakness  the  dissemination  among  them  of  a 
knowledge  of  American  civics  is  necessary.  It  may 
be  most  effectively  done  by  allowing  them  to  share 
in  a  measure  the  American  communal  activities. 
But  this  is  a  privilege  denied  them. 

The  foregoing  discussion  of  the  cultural  condi 
tions  of  the  Japanese  in  America  is  important,  not 
in  determining  whether  or  not  the  Japanese  immi 
grants  are  qualified  to  become  American  citizens — 
for  this  is  out  of  the  question  at  present,  since  the 
right  of  naturalization  is  not  granted  to  them — 
but  to  show  what  is  the  character  of  the  influence 
which  is  exerted  upon  the  native-born  Japanese, 
Americans  by  birth,  by  their  parents.  The  core 
of  the  Japanese  problem  in  America  is,  in  our  opin 
ion,  whether  or  not  American  citizens  of  Japanese 
descent  can  become  worthy  Americans.  Those 
immigrants  who  came  from  Japan  will  die  out  in 
the  course  of  time,  and  further  immigration  can 
be  stopped.  In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  curtail  to 
a  minimum  the  number  of  alien  Japanese  in  the 


Assimilation  173 

United  States.  But  the  American -born  Japanese 
are  American  citizens  and  they  are  here  to  stay. 
Whether  these  young  Americans  will  become  a 
strong  and  successful  element  of  the  American 
people  or  whether  they  will  degenerate  to  a  kind 
of  parasite  and  become  America's  "thorns  in  the 
flesh"  is  really  a  question  of  cardinal  importance. 
But  this  depends  much  on  the  freedom  and  oppor 
tunity  which  are  extended  to  their  parents  in  this 
country.  Thus  the  treatment  of  the  Japanese  in 
California  or  elsewhere  in  the  United  States  as 
sumes  an  aspect  of  vital  significance  to  the  nation. 
It  is  not  a  question  of  the  abstract  principles  of 
justice  or  equality  alone,  but  one  of  concrete  and 
vital  interest  to  America's  own  welfare. 

It  is  in  this  connection  that  all  sorts  of  pressure 
and  oppression- — economic,  political,  social,  and 
spiritual — exerted  on  the  Japanese  population, 
become  most  objectionable  and  harmful.  These 
discriminatory  efforts  against  the  Japanese  ob 
struct  the  Americanization  of  native-born  Japanese 
in  two  ways.  They  prevent  the  parents  from  be 
coming  well-to-do  and  refined  people,  and  from 
getting  permanent  occupation  and  homes,  all  of 
which  are  essential  if  parents  are  to  bring  up  their 
sons  and  daughters  to  a  respectable  standard. 
They  also  unconsciously  imprint  on  the  tender 
minds  of  children  the  idea  that  their  fathers  and 


174    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

mothers  were  not  treated  kindly  in  America,  whose 
loyal  citizens  they  are  destined  to  become.  What 
do  those  exclusionists  really  mean,  when  they  in 
sist  that  the  Japanese  should  be  given  no  oppor 
tunity  to  progress  either  in  agriculture  or  industry 
because  they  are  unassimilable  people?  Do  they 
mean  thereby  to  check  Japanese  immigration? 
They  surely  cannot  mean  this,  for  there  are  other 
and  more  friendly  ways  of  achieving  their  object, 
since  Japan  has  more  than  once  expressed  her 
willingness  to  cooperate  with  America  in  this 
respect.  What  else  can  they  mean  but  that  they 
want  to  hinder  the  American  citizens  of  Japanese 
descent  from  becoming  worthy  Americans  by 
ostracizing  and  persecuting  their  parents? 

Native-Born  Japanese. 

Fortunately,  in  spite  of  all  unfavorable  influence 
and  environment  created  for  them,  the  native- 
born  Japanese  show  very  hopeful  signs  of  realizing 
perfect  Americanization.  Here  again  we  do  not 
wish  to  dogmatize,  in  apparent  lack  of  scientific 
data,  and  assert  that  we  need  feel  no  apprehen 
sion.  Yet  the  few  data  gathered  on  the  subject 
from  observation  strongly  point  to  the  hopeful 
conclusion  that  as  greater  numbers  of  them  ap 
proach  mature  age  they  are  gradually  becoming 
Americans  by  the  accepted  standard.  They 


Assimilation  1 75 

proved  their  patriotism  to  America  during  the 
great  war  by  enlisting  in  the  American  army  and 
navy.  In  their  manner,  address,  and  temperament 
these  boys  and  girls  are  American,  with  an  uncon 
cealed  air  of  American  mannerism.  In  their  fluent 
and  natural  English,  in  their  frankness  and  bold 
recklessness,  in  their  dislike  of  little  and  irksome 
tasks  and  love  of  big  and  adventurous  undertak 
ings,  in  their  chivalry  and  gallantry,  in  their  tall 
and  well-built  stature,  these  young  people  are 
wholly  American,  no  longer  recognizable  as  Jap 
anese  except  in  their  physical  features.  Indeed,  it 
is  the  common  testimony  of  the  Japanese  visiting 
America  that  the  Japanese  children  born  and 
reared  here  differ  so  distinctly  from  children  in 
Japan  that  in  their  manners,  spirit,  and  even  in 
the  play  of  expression  on  their  faces,  they  appear 
characteristically  American.  We  cannot  help 
being  surprised  by  the  completeness  with  which 
the  so-called  racial  traits  of  the  Japanese  are  swept 
away  in  the  first  generation  of  Japanese  born  in 
America. 

The  explanation  for  such  a  remarkable  fact 
must  be  sought  in  the  strong  influence  of  social, 
national ,  and  spiritual  environment.  We  have  seen 
how  even  the  most  stable  elements  of  man's  physi 
ological  constitution  may  change  in  a  new  environ 
ment.  This  being  the  case,  it  may  not  be  entirely 


176    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

surprising  that  less  stable  elements,  such  as  tem 
perament  and  expression,  should  change  more 
rapidly  and  completely  in  a  new  social  milieu. 
This  fact  is  a  deathblow  to  the  theorists  who  up 
hold  the  d  priori  view  of  race,  that  it  is  a  fixed, 
pure,  unchangeable  reality.  It  attests  the  truth  of 
Mr.  John  Oakesmith's  thesis  in  which  he  so  ably 
establishes  that  "the  objective  influence  of  race  in 
the  evolution  of  nationality  is  fiction, "  and  that  the 
sole  foundation  and  unifying  force  of  nationality  is 
the  "organic  continuity  of  common  interest.*' J 

In  the  cross-examination  of  native-born  Jap 
anese  children  by  the  Congressional  Sub-Com 
mittee  on  Immigration  and  Naturalization 
conducted  on  the  Pacific  Coast  last  spring,  it  was 
found  that  in  almost  all  cases  the  children  ex 
pressed  the  feeling  that  they  like  the  United  States 
better  than  Japan  because  they  are  more  familiar 
and  closely  associated  with  things  and  people  in 
America.  This  is  doubtless  an  honest  confession 
of  their  sentiment.  They  generally  do  not  read  or 
write  Japanese  because  it  is  wholly  different  from 
English  and  so  difficult.  They  learn  from  their 
parents  that  the  life  is  hard  and  competition  is  keen 
in  Japan.  They  know  America  is  a  great  country, 
a  land  of  liberty  and  opportunity.  Naturally 

1  Race  and  Nationality,  Frederick  A.  Stokes  Co.,  New  York, 
1919- 


Assimilation  177 

their  interest  in  Japan  is  very  slight,  and  they 
think  they  are  Americans,  and  they  are  proud  of 
it.1 

These  are  the  hopeful  signs  which  offer  us  reason 
for  being  optimistic.  We  cannot,  nevertheless,  be 
blind  to  the  fact  that  there  are  many  obstacles 
which  if  left  unchecked  will  tend  to  defeat  our 
hopes.  These  obstacles  we  find,  first,  in  the  con 
gested  condition  of  the  Japanese  on  the  Pacific 
Coast.  For  convenience  and  benefit  the  Japanese 
have  been  living  more  or  less  in  groups,  speaking 
their  own  language  to  a  large  extent,  and  retaining 
many  of  the  Japanese  customs  and  manners.  This 
tendency  has  been  a  great  obstacle  in  the  assimila 
tion  of  the  Japanese.  Their  dispersal  in  many 
other  States  of  the  Union  is  one  of  the  first  require 
ments  of  Americanization,  and  consequently  of 
an  equitable  solution  of  the  Japanese- California 
problem.  We  shall  touch  upon  this  subject  in  the 
concluding  chapter. 

1  See  example  of  testimony  in  Appendix  L. 

See  also  Appendix  M  in  which  the  subject  of  comparative  stand 
ing  of  intelligence  and  behaviour  of  native-born  Japanese  children 
and  American  children  is  discussed  by  several  principals  of  ele 
mentary  schools  in  Southern  California. 


CHAPTER  X 

GENERAL   CONCLUSION 

IN  dealing  with  the  Japanese  problem  in  Cali 
fornia,  we  started  with  a  general  account  of 
Japanese  traits  and  ideas.  We  did  so  because  we 
believed  that  a  knowledge  of  the  Japanese  disposi 
tion  is  essential  to  a  comprehensive  understanding 
of  the  problem.  No  attempt  was  made  to  deter 
mine  whether  the  traits  of  the  Japanese' — their 
emotional  nature,  their  well-developed  aesthetic 
temperament  and  strong  group  consciousness,  and 
the  unique  feature  of  chivalry  and  virility  prevail 
ing  among  the  lower  classes — are  inherent  in  the 
race  or  acquired ;  but  we  concluded  that  the  ques 
tion  may  best  be  answered  by  observing  those  of 
Japanese  descent  born  and  reared  in  different 
countries.  Later,  when  we  examined  the  charac 
teristics  of  the  American-born  Japanese  and  dis 
covered  that  they  appear  to  have  lost  most  of  the 
Japanese  traits,  and,  in  turn,  have  acquired  mental 
attitudes  that  are  peculiar  to  the  American,  it  was 
suggested  that  none  of  the  racial  characteristics  is 
necessarily  fixed,  and  that,  similarly,  the  Japanese 

17* 


General  Conclusion  179 

traits  must  have  been  largely  acquired  through 
peculiar  natural  surroundings  and  social  systems. 

Next  we  reviewed  in  a  brief  way  Japan's  Asiatic 
policy  in  order  to  envisage  the  international  situa 
tion  in  which  she  finds  herself  and  to  see  how  she 
proposes  to  meet  her  difficulties  at  home  and 
abroad.  We  commented  on  the  manifest  short 
comings  of  that  policy.  In  view  of  the  fact  that 
Japan's  industry — her  only  hope  in  the  future — 
has  to  depend  largely  on  the  supply  of  raw  material 
from  her  Asiatic  neighbors,  the  assurance  of  good 
will  and  friendly  cooperation  with  them  is  essential 
for  her  welfare.  It  is  in  the  failure  to  obtain  this 
assurance  that  the  defect  of  Japan's  past  Asiatic 
policy  becomes  apparent.  We  expressed  our  con 
viction  that  under  the  circumstances  the  best  that 
Japan  can  do  is  to  so  reconstruct  the  principle  of 
the  policy  as  to  convince  her  neighbors  of  her 
genuine  sincerity. 

In  the  chapter  on  the  background  of  Japanese 
emigration,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  discover 
its  causes.  The  principal  causes  found  are  the 
small  amount  of  land,  the  dense  population,  and 
the  limited  prospect  of  industrial  development 
due  to  the  scarcity  of  raw  material.  Moreover, 
the  peculiar  social  and  political  conditions  in  Japan 
are  such  as  to  obstruct,  by  numerous  fetters  and 
restraints,  the  free  development  of  ambitious 


i8o    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

youths.  The  exaggerated  stories  of  great  oppor 
tunities  in  the  new  worlds  kindle  the  desire  of  the 
young  people  to  go  abroad. 

Tentative  attempts  were  made  some  thirty, 
years  ago  in  emigration  to  Australia,  Canada,  and 
the  United  States.  Nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century's 
effort  at  emigration  into  the  new  worlds,  with  the 
exception  of  partial  success  in  Brazil,  had  proved  a 
complete  failure,  and  thus  attempts  at  migration 
towards  the  North  came  into  vogue. 

In  our  discussion  of  the  causes  of  anti-Japanese 
agitation  in  California,  it  was  made  clear  that  the 
explanation  of  much  of  the  trouble  lies  in  the 
conditions  of  the  Japanese  themselves,  such  as 
congestion  in  particular  localities  and  different 
manners  and  customs.  The  nationalistic  policy 
of  Japan  was  also  pointed  out  as  a  factor  making 
for  resentment.  What  renders  the  situation  un 
necessarily  complicated,  leading  to  a  general  mis 
understanding,  is  the  employment  of  the  issue  in 
local  politics — exploitation  of  the  subject  for  pri 
vate  ends  by  agitators  and  propagandists. 

Then  our  study  entered  the  heart  of  the  Cali 
fornia  problem,  the  fact  of  the  existing  Japanese 
population.  It  was  discovered  that  the  rate  of 
increase  of  Japanese  population  in  California  has 
been  rapid,  but  that  it  shows  a  tendency  to  slow 
down,  while  the  rate  of  increase  of  the  entire  popu- 


General  Conclusion  181 

lation  of  the  State  shows  a  tendency  to  steady  in 
crease.  We  found  that  in  comparison  with  the 
total  number  of  Japanese  in  the  United  States 
the  percentage  of  Japanese  in  California  is  re 
markably  high,  nearly  60  per  cent,  of  them  being 
domiciled  in  that  one  State.  Then  we  examined 
the  factors — immigration,  smuggling,  and  births — 
which  contributed  to  the  increase  of  the  Japanese 
population  in  California.  Under  the  subject  of 
immigration  it  was  made  clear  that  the  net  gain 
from  immigration  has  become  small  since  the 
restrictive  agreement  was  concluded,  but  that  the 
number  of  those  entering  the  country  increased 
because  the  number  of  those  who  are  passing 
through  or  temporarily  visiting  America  has  in 
creased.  We  expressed  our  opinion  that  in  order 
to  quiet  the  excitement  of  the  people  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  it  is  entirely  desirable  to  stop  sending  Jap 
anese  immigrants  to  America. 

We  have  somewhat  fully  treated  the  subject  of 
birth  because  it  is  a  vital  part  of  the  question.  It 
was  discovered  in  the  discussion  that  the  birth 
rate  of  the  Japanese  in  California  is  exceptionally 
high,  due  to  the  fact  that  a  high  percentage  of  the 
immigrants  are  in  the  prime  of  life  and  that  the 
percentage  of  married  people  is  remarkably  high. 
In  forecasting  the  future  of  the  birth  rate  we 
stated  that  if  immigration  is  stopped  the  present 


1 82    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

generation  will  in  time  pass  out  without  being  re- 
enforced,  leaving  behind  American -born  children, 
who,  with  higher  culture  and  more  even  distribu 
tion  with  regard  to  age  and  marriage,  will  not 
multiply  at  nearly  so  high  a  rate  as  their  parents. 
We  concluded,  therefore,  that  the  present  is  a  tran 
sitional  period  and  that  apprehension  over  the 
high  birth  rate  is  entirely  unwarranted. 

The  chapter  on  Japanese  agriculture  in  Cali 
fornia  gives  report  of  a  degree  of  progress  that  has 
been  remarkable.  As  to  the  causes  of  this  progress 
the  peculiar  adaptation  of  the  Japanese  farmers  to 
the  agricultural  conditions  of  California  was  pre 
sented  as  the  principal  one.  Then  we  considered 
separately  the  Japanese  farm  labor  and  the  farmers. 
What  we  found  in  treating  the  subject  of  Japanese 
farm  laborers  was  that  they  are  indispensable  to 
California's  agriculture,  inasmuch  as  they  have 
several  important  peculiarities  which  are  useful. 
Their  ability  to  farm  and  their  aptitude  for  bodily 
and  manual  dexterity,  as  well  as  their  highly 
transitory  character  under  the  system  of  contract 
labor,  are  useful  assets  to  the  farmers  of  California. 
Under  the  topic  of  the  Japanese  farmer,  we  ex 
amined  the  reasons  given  for  the  discrimination 
against  Japanese  in  agricultural  pursuits.  The 
first  reason — that  they  are  "  crushing  competitors 
of  California  farmers" — was  criticized  on  the 


General  Conclusion  183 

ground  that  there  is  not  much  competition  be 
tween  white  and  Japanese  farmers,  since  there  is  a 
pretty  clear  line  of  demarkation  between  them,  the 
former  being  engaged  in  farming  on  a  large  scale 
and  the  latter  engaged  in  small  intensive  agricul 
ture.  The  second  apprehension — that  the  Jap 
anese  farmer,  if  left  unchecked,  will  soon  control 
the  greater  part  of  California  agriculture — was 
characterized  as  an  entirely  exaggerated  fear,  since 
the  portion  of  land  which  the  Japanese  till  is 
quite  negligible  and  there  are  vast  tracts  of  land 
yet  uncultivated.  The  third  objection — -which 
finds  reason  for  opposition  in  the  unassimilability 
of  the  Japanese — we  held  as  the  weightiest  count, 
and  withheld  criticism  until  we  had  fully  treated 
the  subject  of  assimilation  in  the  succeeding  chap 
ter.  What  we  insisted  on  was  that  it  is  unwise  to 
maltreat  the  Japanese  on  the  surmise  that  they  are 
unassimilable.  Whether  they  are  assimilable  or 
not — and  this  is  not  the  question,  for  they  are  not 
allowed  to  become  American  citizens — their  chil 
dren,  who  are  Americans  by  virtue  of  birth,  will  suf 
fer  much  from  a  hostile  policy  towards  their  parents. 
The  anti-alien  land  laws  were  considered  briefly, 
and  the  views  of  their  critics  were  introduced. 
As  an  effective  measure  to  cope  with  the  legisla 
tion,  we  suggested  that  neither  legal  nor  diplo 
matic  disputes  will  bring  about  a  satisfactory 


1 84    Japan  and  the  Calif ornia  Problem 

result,  but  that  only  through  obtaining  the  good 
will  and  friendship  of  the  people  of  California  can 
there  be  a  true  solution. 

The  topic  of  assimilation  discussed  in  the  pre 
ceding  chapter  needs  no  recapitulation. 

The  foregoing  study,  which  we  have  undertaken 
from  the  outset  with  an  open  mind  and  fair  atti 
tude,  has,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  disclosed  that  the  un 
derlying  cause  of  the  entire  difficulty  is  a  conflict 
or  maladjustment  of  interest.  There  are  four 
parties  whose  peculiar  interests  and  rights  are 
seriously  involved  in  the  situation.  First  and  fore 
most,  we  have  to  consider  the  rights  and  interests 
of  California.  Then  we  have  the  United  States, 
which  is  no  less  directly  concerned  with  the  prob 
lem.  For  the  Japanese  living  in  California,  the 
issue  is  a  matter  of  life  and  death;  their  entire 
interests  and  welfare  are  at  stake.  Japan  also  is 
as  much  concerned  with  the  fate  of  her  subjects  in 
America  as  the  United  States  would  be  with  the 
welfare  of  her  people  living  abroad — say  in  Mexico. 
The  Japanese  problem  in  California  is  the  concrete 
expression  of  the  maladjustment  of  the  interests 
and  rights  of  these  four  parties  concerned. 

Various  measures,  wise  and  unwise,  have  been 
proposed  for  the  solution  of  the  problem,  but  none 
of  them  has  so  far  been  put  into  effect,  since  each 
has  failed  to  adjust  the  interests  and  rights  of  all 


General  Conclusion  185 

parties  concerned  in  an  harmonious  way,  and  hence 
has  met  with  violent  protest  at  the  outset. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  proposal  that  the  Jap 
anese  should  be  granted  the  right  of  naturaliza 
tion.  The  promoters  of  the  project  insist  that 
the  denial  to  the  Japanese  of  the  right  to  become 
citizens  of  the  United  States  is  the  cause  of  the 
anti- Japanese  exclusion  movement,  and,  accord 
ingly,  that  the  granting  of  the  privilege  will  annul 
all  discriminatory  efforts.  Undoubtedlv  the  pro 
posal  was  well  meant,  but  it  has  perhaps  done 
more  harm  than  good.  In  the  first  place,  it  con 
fuses  the  cause  and  method  of  discrimination 
against  the  Japanese.  The  Japanese  ineligibility 
to  citizenship  has  certainly  been  seized  on  as  a 
weapon  for  discrimination,  but  it  is  by  no  means 
the  cause.  The  cause  is  elsewhere.  In  the  second 
place,  the  advocates  of  the  proposal  argue  that,  if 
adopted,  it  will  defeat  the  entire  discriminatory 
efforts  of  the  Californians.  It  is,  however,  de 
cidedly  unwise  to  attempt  to  defeat  the  effort 
without  removing  the  cause  of  the  difficulty.  No 
wonder  the  proposal  has  provoked  the  wild 
criticism  of  California  leaders.  The  granting  of 
citizenship  to  refined  and  Americanized  Japanese 
is  in  itself  a  proper  and  desirable  step,  but  to  use  it 
as  a  weapon  to  defeat  the  exclusion  movement  is 
clearly  unwise. 


1 86     Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

The  solution  of  the  Japanese  problem  in  Califor 
nia,  if  it  be  equitable  at  all  and  satisfactory  to  the 
four  parties  involved,  must  rest  on  the  following 
basic  principles : 

1.  That  it  should  be  in  consonance  with  justice 
and  international  courtesy;  it  must  redress  Japan1  s 
grievances  and  meet  America's  wishes. 

2.  That  it  should  be  fair  to  Calif  ornians;  that  is 
to  say,  operate  to  allay  the  jear  they  entertain  oj 
the  alarming  increase  of  Japanese  in  numbers  and 
economic  importance. 

3.  That  it  should  be  fair  to  the  Japanese  residents ', 
both  aliens  and  American-born,  so  that  they  may 
enjoy  in  peace,  without  molestation  or  persecution, 
the  blessings  of  "life,   liberty,   and  the  pursuit  of 
happiness,"  and  participate,  as  all  American-born 
are  entitled  and  in  duty  bound  to  do,  in  the  promotion 
of  the  State's  well-being.      )  / 

The  new  treaty,  which  is  reported  to  have  been 
laid  for  final  decision  before  the  Washington  and 
Tokyo  Governments  by  the  two  negotiators, 
Ambassador  Morris  and  Ambassador  Shidehara, 
has  not  been  made  public  at  this  writing.  We  have, 
therefore,  no  means  of  knowing  the  contents  or 
nature  of  its  provisions.  It  may,  however,  be 
presumed  that  it  will  go  a  long  way  toward  re 
dressing  Japan's  grievances  and  meeting  America's 
wishes.  The  latter  will  probably  be  met  by  Japan's 


General  Conclusion  187 

adoption  of  drastic  measures  to  check  completely 
the  influx  of  her  immigrants.  Knowing  that  Japan 
has  always  been  sincere  and  ready  to  yield  to  the 
wishes  of  the  United  States,  we  hold  it  only  just 
that  she  be  saved  the  embarrassment  arising  from 
discrimination  against  her  subjects  in  America. 
Proud  and  sensitive,  Japan  takes  to  heart  the 
abuses  or  indignities  which  she  deems  seriously 
detrimental  to  her  national  honor. 

The  conclusion  of  the  Treaty  and  its  ratification 
by  the  Senate,  however,  may  not  prove  the  pana 
cea  for  all  evils,  for  governmental  action  is  natu 
rally  circumscribed  in  its  sphere.  To  solve  the 
perplexing  question  once  for  all,  the  Treaty  must 
be  supplemented  by  the  patriotic  efforts  of  public- 
spirited  citizens  of  both  countries  to  heal  and  adjust 
the  irritated  parts  in  the  scheme  of  American- 
Japanese  relations  which  are  beyond  the  reach  of 
governmental  action.  Viscount  Shibusawa  and 
some  of  his  compatriots  have,  during  the  last  year, 
held  many  conferences  with  some  prominent 
Americans — those  representing  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce  of  San  Francisco  and  the  party  headed 
by  Mr.  Frank  Vanderlip.  A  better  understanding 
of  the  situation  must  have  resulted  as  a  conse 
quence  of  the  conferences.  The  earnestness  of  the 
Viscount  and  his  friends  to  do  what  they  could  for 
the  good  of  both  countries  is  beyond  praise.  But 


1 88     Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

we  fear  they  have  been  measuring  America  by 
Japan's  standard  and  trying  to  cure  the  trouble 
without  remedying  the  cause.  In  Japan  the 
counsel  of  a  few  influential  men  often  proves  effec 
tive  even  in  local  affairs,  but  in  America,  where 
local  autonomy  is  strongly  entrenched,  a  man, 
however  prominent  a  figure  he  may  have  cut  in 
national  affairs,  will  think  twice  before  he  pro 
nounces  judgment  on  matters  of  local  concern,  lest 
it  be  construed  as  an  intrusion,  and  thus  defeat  the 
good  intention.  The  California  question  can  only 
be  settled  by  or  in  cooperation  with  the  Cali- 
fornians,  and  right  on  the  spot,  not  elsewhere. 

We  believe  that  the  time  has  come,  therefore, 
when  those  public-spirited  citizens  of  both  coun 
tries  should  replace  academic  discussion  by  action. 
As  a  means  of  alleviating  the  situation  we  venture 
to  offer  the  following  modest  suggestion : 

i.  That  a  Committee  of  a  dozen  or  so  members, 
\ 

consisting  of  public-spirited  men  of  broad  vision 
of  both  countries,  and  particularly  of  California, 
be  formed  with  the  object  of  formulating  and 
putting  into  effect  the  project  of  relieving  the 
^congestion  of  Japanese  in  California. 

Such  a  Committee  would  doubtless  be  able  to 
secure  the  hearty  cooperation  of  The  Japan  Society 
of  New  York  and  other  cities,  as  well  as  of  the 
Japanese  Association  of  America  and  similar  or- 


General  Conclusion  189 

ganizations,  all  of  which  exist  with  a  view  to  pro 
moting  friendly  relations  between  America  and 
Japan. 

2.  That  the  said  Committee  appoint  an  adminis 
trator  of  proved  executive  ability  and  a  staff  for 
the  prosecution  of  the  project. 

3.  That  to  finance  the  project  an  initial  fund 
of  half  a  million  dollars  be  raised  by  contribution 
from  the  120,000  Japanese  living  in  this  country. 

The  Japanese  domiciled  in  this  country  have  the 
keenest  interest  in  the  subject ;  they  are  directly  or 
indirectly  affected  by  the  anti-Japanese  agitation 
in  California;  they  would  not  grudge  a  contribu 
tion  of  a  small  sum  for  the  purpose  of  uprooting 
the  cause  of  that  annoyance.  The  Japanese  in 
California  who  have  interests  at  stake  would  surely 
be  more  than  willing  to  contribute  their  quota 
to  the  fund.  The  native  Calif ornians,  too,  we 
strongly  feel,  in  their  calm  and  considerate  mood, 
would  obey  the  dictates  of  wisdom  to  adopt  a 
more  liberal  and  logical  method  of  relieving  the 
local  tension  than  to  resort,  as  at  present,  to 
measures  of  repression  and  persecution. 

We  are  of  the  opinion  that  there  would  be  a  fair 
demand  in  other  States  of  the  Union  for  such 
skilled  farm  hands  as  we  have  found  in  the  Jap 
anese  in  California  if  the  facts  were  well  advertised. 
If  proper  precaution  be  taken  so  as  to  avoid  the 


190    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

repetition  of  the  same  story  of  congestion  as  that 
in  California,  the  plan  of  dispersal  above  outlined 
might  prove  a  boon  to  all  concerned.  If  the  initial 
stage  of  the  plan  be  earnestly  carried  out  before 
the  eyes  of  the  Californians,  a  totally  different  at 
mosphere  might  be  created  among  them  so  as  to 
win  their  good  will  and  enlist  their  cooperation. 
When  such  a  happy  outcome  is  obtained,  a  solution 
of  the  Japanese-California  problem  is  assured. 

There  iz  certainly  a  great  deal  which  the  Jap 
anese  in  California  can  and  must  do.  In  the  first 
place,  they  must  thoroughly  grasp  the  psychology 
of  the  Californians.  They  must  indicate,  if  they 
are  to  remain  in  this  country,  their  willingness  to 
become  Americans  regardless  of  barriers  or  opposi 
tion.  They  must  show  this  willingness  not  only  in 
intention  but  also  in  practice.  They  must  improve 
their  command  of  English,  alter  many  of  their 
customs  and  manners.  They  must  endeavor  to 
elevate  their  standard  of  living  and  culture.  They 
must  give  up  beliefs  and  ideals  which  are  Japanese 
and  which  run  counter  to  the  American.  It  would 
be  well  for  them  to  refrain  from  building  in  Cali 
fornia  Shinto  shrines  and  Buddhist  temples  and 
from  maintaining  language  schools.  They  must 
above  all  learn  to  take  an  interest  in  the  national 
life  of  the  United  States. 

There  is  also  much  that  the  Japanese  Govern- 


General  Conclusion  191 

ment  can  do.  Its  policy  of  paternalism,  extending 
too  much  care  to  Japanese  domiciled  abroad,  and 
even  to  Japanese  born  abroad,  must,  in  our  opin 
ion,  be  altered.  The  claim  of  allegiance  to  the 
home  country  by  the  children  born  in  another 
country,  whatever  may  be  their  status  in  the  land 
of  birth,  is  an  international  practice  still  adhered 
to  by  most  European  nations — France,  Italy, 
Germany,  Switzerland,  Greece.  From  this  results 
what  is  called  a  "dual  nationality"  of  a  subject. 
In  a  country  like  the  United  States,  where  its 
Constitution  endows  children  bornc  therein  with 
citizenship,  the  so-called  ''dual  nationality"  gives 
rise  to  an  awkward  situation  in  case  its  mother 
country  adopts  the  military  conscription  system.  • 
To  avoid  this  awkward  situation,  Japan  enacted 
in  the  year  1916  a  law  which  provides  that  a 
Japanese  boy  who  has  acquired  a  foreign  national 
ity  by  reason  of  his  birth  in  a  foreign  country  may 
divest  himself  of  Japanese  nationality  if  his  father, 
or  other  parental  authority,  takes  the  necessary 
steps  to  that  end  before  he  is  fifteen  years  of  age, 
or,  if  he  has  attained  the  age  of  fifteen,  he  may 
himself  take  the  same  steps,  with  the  consent  of 
his  father  or  guardian,  before  he  reaches  the  age 
of  seventeen. r  This  law  is  objectionable  because  it 
fixes  the  age  limit  of  expatriation  at  seventeen, 

1  For  text  of  this  law  see  Appendix  K. 


192    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

when  the  subject  is  yet  a  minor  and  is  not  com 
petent  to  exercise  his  own  choice.  Fixing  the  age 
limit  at  seventeen  is  a  provision  in  consonance  with 
the  Japanese  military  law,  which  imposes  on  all 
male  Japanese  subjects  above  that  age  the  duty 
of  military  service.  Consequently,  all  American- 
born  Japanese  males  who  have  failed  to  expatriate 
before  they  have  reached  the  age  of  seventeen  are 
claimed  as  Japanese  subjects  and  are  subject  to 
conscription,  while  at  the  same  time  they  are 
American  citizens.  The  existence  of  such  a  dis 
cordance  in  the  laws  and  Constitution  of  the  two 
countries  has  the  possibility  of  giving  rise  to  a 
serious  international  complication,  and  it  seems 
advisable  that  some  sort  of  settlement  be  made 
on  this  point  between  the  American  and  Japanese 
Governments.  The  difficulty  could,  of  course,  be 
overcome  if  the  Japanese  parents  who  are  deter 
mined  to  stay  permanently  in  this  country  would 
take  the  necessary  steps  to  expatriate  their  children 
as  soon  as  they  are  born,  or  at  the  proper  time.  The 
hesitation  they  have  heretofore  manifested  was 
greatly  due  to  the  uncertainty  in  which  their  future 
and  that  of  their  children  was  shrouded. 

We  cannot  omit  to  emphasize  in  this  connection 
the  part  which  America  can  and  has  to  perform. 
Of  the  numerous  things  America  can  do  with  profit 
we  believe  the  task  of  Americanizing  the  Japanese 


General  Conclusion  193 

to  be  the  foremost.  We  wish  to  make  it  clear  that, 
whether  Japanese  aliens  are  worthy  or  not,  their 
children  born  in  America  are  in  any  case  Ameri 
cans,  and  it  is  America's  duty  to  make  them 
worthy  members  of  the  nation.  They  are  not 
foreigners  or  aliens,  and,  accordingly,  it  is  clearly 
wrong,  as  well  as  unwise,  to  deal  with  them  as  if 
they  were.  Upon  what  we  can  do  to  guide  the  ris 
ing  generation  depends  the  future  of  the  Japanese 
problem  in  America.  This  in  turn  must  depend 
upon  how  America  treats  their  parents.  Disap 
pearing  gradually  as  they  are,  they  are  bequeath 
ing  their  impressions  and  accomplishments  to  their 
children.  Any  generosity  and  kindness  extended 
to  them  are  acts  not  so  much  of  altruism  as  of  vital 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  America  herself,  for  they 
are  the  guardians  of  the  Republic's  sons  and 
daughters  of  Japanese  blood. 

It  is  certainly  not  fair  to  slander  and  maltreat 
those  people,  who  were  originally  brought  in  to 
fill  the  need  of  man-power  and  who  have  con 
tributed  much  towards  making  the  Pacific  Coast 
what  it  is  to-day.  To  prevent  the  influx  of  Jap 
anese  immigrants,  to  avoid  the  possible  future 
development  of  difficult  problems  with  Japan, 
there  certainly  ought  to  be  some  better  means 
than  gradually  strangling  the  innocent  people 
who  individually  are  in  no  way  to  be  blamed 
* 


X94    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

for  the  present  strained  relations  on  the  Pacific 
Coast. 

All  these  considerations  lead  us  to  a  belief  that 
the  time  is  now  ripe  for  the  American  people,  and 
especially  for  the  people  of  California,  to  recon 
struct  their  attitude  and  policy  towards  the  Jap 
anese  domiciled  in  this  country.  Every  indication 
seems  to  suggest  that  if,  in  place  of  the  discrimina 
tory  policy  so  far  resorted  to  with  no  better  effect 
than  general  irritation,  a  new  policy  be  initiated,  a 
policy  of  constructive  Americanization  based  upon 
generosity,  sympathy,  and  understanding,  the 
result  will  surely  be  far-reaching.  It  is  a  common 
fact  of  human  experience  that  one's  attitude  is 
directly  responded  to  by  other  people  with  whom 
we  deal.  It  was  Thackeray,  we  believe,  who  said 
that  "the  world  is  like  a  looking-glass;  if  we  smile, 
others  also  smile."  What  cannot  be  achieved  by  a 
hostile  policy  is  often  easily  and  satisfactorily  ac 
complished  by  sympathetic  attitude  and  friendly 
dealing.  Give  the  Japanese  the  opportunity  and 
see  what  good  use  they  will  make  of  it. 

We  hardly  need  to  reiterate  that  the  Japanese- 
California  question — the  main  theme  of  this  book 
— is  only  a  part  of  the  vast  problem  which  con 
fronts  America  and  Japan.  The  present  world 
tendency  is  to  bind  increasingly  all  parts  of  the 
world  into  one.  The  process  of  civilization,  like  a 


General  Conclusion  195 

revolving  body,  exerts  centrifugal  and  centripetal 
force  and  gradually  unifies  all  civilizations  into  a 
cohesive  system.  At  present  there  are  two  centers 
of  such  forces,  one  in  the  East  and  another  in  the 
West,  each  trying  to  influence  the  other.  By  virtue 
of  being  the  youngest  and  the  most  vigorous 
representatives  of  the  two  spheres,  Japan  and 
America,  respectively,  are  naturally  destined  to 
shoulder  together  the  great  task  of  harmonizing 
and  unifying  these  two  great  currents  of  human 
achievement.  The  task  involves,  from  its  gigantic 
nature,  a  great  many  difficulties  and  risks  of  which 
the  present  California  issue  is  certainly  one.  All 
these  difficulties  must  be  squarely  met  and  sur 
mounted  with  courage  and  wisdom,  since  to  shrink 
from  the  job  is  to  commit  the  future  relationship 
of  the  East  and  West  to  the  cruel  law  of  natural 
selection. 

It  is,  however,  generally  true  that  the  perfect 
understanding  of  the  common  aim  settles  the  in 
cidental  difficulties  arising  in  the  process.  This  is 
particularly  true  in  the  case  of  the  California- 
Japanese  question,  which  is  a  partial  issue  of  the 
great  undertaking  between  America  and  Japan. 
The  core  of  the  California  problem,  our  study  has 
shown,  is  the  question  of  assimilability  of  the 
Japanese.  But  what  is  the  assimilation  but  the 
approach  to  the  common  standard  of  culture  and 


196    Japan  and  the  California  Problem 

ideals?  The  approach  to  the  common  standard  of 
culture  and  ideals  between  the  peoples  of  Asia  and 
Europe  and  America  is  precisely  the  task  in  which 
Japan  and  the  United  States  are  engaged  in  unison. 
Herein  is  the  explanation  of  our  earlier  assertion 
that  the  California  problem  is  a  miniature  form  of 
the  problem  of  the  East  and  West.  Herein  also 
is  the  support  of  our  contention  that  to  accelerate 
the  cooperative  effort  of  America  and  Japan  for 
mutual  understanding  is  the  only  and  the  best 
method  of  bringing  about  the  solution  of  the 
Japanese  problem  in  California  or  elsewhere  in  the 
United  States.  We  wish,  therefore,  to  emphasize 
once  more  that  the  wisest  policy  to  follow  in  the 
future  for  America  and  Japan  is  not  foolishly  to 
sharpen  the  edge  of  swords  for  imaginary  race  wars, 
which  are  absurd,  but  to  devote  themselves  wisely 
to  learning  and  appreciating  each  other's  accom 
plishments  and  greatness,  from  which  alone  true 
friendship  can  arise. 


APPENDIX  A 


197 


APPENDIX  A 


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APPENDIX  B 

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  TREATY  OF  COMMERCE  AND  NAVI 
GATION  AND  PROTOCOL  BETWEEN  JAPAN  AND  THE 
UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  OF  FEBRUARY  21, 
I9II. 

His  Majesty,  the  Emperor  of  Japan,  and  the  Presi 
dent  of  the  United  States  of  America,  being  desirous 
to  strengthen  the  relations  of  amity  and  good  under 
standing  which  happily  exist  between  the  two  nations, 
and  believing  that  the  fixation  in  a  manner  clear  and 
positive  of  the  rules  which  are  hereafter  to  govern 
the  commercial  intercourse  between  their  respective 
countries  will  contribute  to  this  most  desirable  result, 
have  resolved  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  commerce  and 
navigation. 

Article  I. — The  subjects  or  citizens  of  each  of  the 
high  contracting  parties  shall  have  liberty  to  enter, 
travel,  and  reside  in  the  territories  of  the  other,  to 
carry  on  trade,  wholesale  and  retail,  to  own  or  lease 
and  occupy  houses,  manufactories,  warehouses,  and 
shops,  to  employ  agents  of  their  choice,  to  lease  land 
for  residential  and  commercial  purposes,  and  generally 
to  do  anything  incident  to  or  necessary  for  trade,  upon 
the  same  terms  as  native  subjects  or  citizens,  sub 
mitting  themselves  to  the  laws  and  regulations  there 
established. 

They  shall  not  be  compelled,  under  any  pretext 

901 


2O2  Appendix  B 

whatever,  to  pay  any  charges  or  taxes  other  or  higher 
than  those  that  are  or  may  be  paid  by  native  subjects 
or  citizens. 

The  subjects  or  citizens  of  each  of  the  high  con 
tracting  parties  shall  receive,  in  the  territories  of  the 
other,  the  most  constant  protection  and  security  for 
their  persons  and  property  and  shall  enjoy  in  this 
respect  the  same  rights  and  privileges  as  are  or  may 
be  granted  to  native  subjects  or  citizens,  on  their 
submitting  themselves  to  the  conditions  imposed  upon 
the  native  subjects  and  citizens. 

Article  IV. — There  shall  be  between  the  territories 
of  the  two  high  contracting  parties  reciprocal  free 
dom  of  commerce  and  navigation.  The  subjects  or 
citizens  of  each  of  the  contracting  parties,  equally  with 
the  subjects  or  citizens  of  the  most  favored  nation  shall 
have  liberty  freely  to  come  with  their  ships  and  cargoes 
to  all  places,  ports,  and  rivers  in  the  territories  of  the 
other  which  are  or  may  be  opened  to  foreign  commerce, 
subject  always  to  the  laws  of  the  country  to  which 
they  thus  come. 

Article  V. — Neither  contracting  party  shall  impose 
any  other  or  higher  duties  or  charges  on  the  exporta 
tion  of  any  article  to  the  territories  of  the  other  than 
are  or  may  be  payable  on  the  exportation  of  the  like 
article  to  any  other  foreign  country. 

Nor  shall  any  prohibition  be  imposed  by  either 
country  on  the  importation  or  exportation  of  any 
article  from  or  to  the  territories  of  the  other  which 
shall  not  equally  extend  to  the  like  article  imported 
from  or  exported  to  any  other  country. 

Article  XIV. — Except  as  otherwise  expressly  pro 
vided  in  this  treaty,  the  high  contracting  parties  agree 
that  in  all  that  concerns  commerce  and  navigation, 


Appendix  B  203 

any  privilege,  favor,  or  immunity  which  either  con 
tracting  party  has  actually  granted  or  may  hereafter 
grant,  to  the  subjects  or  citizens  of  any  other  State 
shall  be  extended  to  the  subjects  or  citizens  of  the 
other  contracting  party  ...  on  the  same  or  equiva 
lent  conditions.  .  .  . 

Declaration 

In  proceeding  this  day  to  the  signature  of  the  treaty 
of  commerce  and  navigation  .  .  .  the  undersigned 
has  the  honor  to  declare  that  the  Imperial  Japanese 
Government  are  fully  prepared  to  maintain  with  equal 
effectiveness  the  limitation  and  control  which  they 
have  for  the  past  three  years  exercised  in  regulation  of 
the  immigration  of  laborers  to  the  United  States. 

(Signed)  Y.  UCHIDA. 

February  21,  1911. 


APPENDIX  C 

CALIFORNIA'S  ALIEN  LAND  LAW 

(Approved  May  19,  1913) 

The  people  of  the  State  of  California  do  enact  as  follows: 
Section  i. — All  aliens  eligible  to  citizenship  under 
the  laws  of  the  United  States  may  acquire,  possess, 
enjoy,  transmit,  and  inherit  real  property,  or  any 
interest  therein,  in  this  State,  in  the  same  manner  and 
to  the  same  extent  as  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
except  as  otherwise  provided  by  the  laws  of  this  State. 
Section  2. — All  aliens  other  than  those  mentioned 
in  section  one  of  this  act  may  acquire,  possess,  enjoy, 
and  transfer  real  property,  or  any  interest  therein,  in 
this  State,  in  the  manner  and  to  the  extent  and  for  the 
purposes  prescribed  by  any  treaty  now  existing  be 
tween  the  Government  of  the  United  States  and  the 
nation  or  country  of  which  such  alien  is  a  citizen  or 
subject  and  not  otherwise,  and  may  in  addition  thereto 
lease  lands  in  this  State  for  agricultural  purposes  for  a 
term  not  exceeding  three  years. 

Section  3. — Any  company,  association,  or  corpora 
tion  organized  under  the  laws  of  this  or  any  other 
State  or  nation,  of  which  a  majority  of  the  members 
are  aliens  other  than  those  specified  in  section  one  of 
this  act,  or  in  which  a  majority  of  the  issued  capital 
stock  is  owned  by  such  aliens,  may  acquire,  possess, 
enjoy,  and  convey  real  property,  or  any  interest  therein 

304 


Appendix  C  205 

in  this  State,  in  the  manner  and  to  the  extent  and  for 
the  purposes  prescribed  by  any  treaty  now  existing 
between  the  Government  of  the  United  States  and 
the  nation  or  country  of  which  such  members  or  stock 
holders  are  citizens  or  subjects,  and  not  otherwise, 
and  may  in  addition  thereto  lease  lands  in  this  State 
for  agricultural  purposes  for  a  term  not  exceeding 
three  years. 

Section  4. — Whenever  it  appears  to  the  court  in  any 
probate  proceeding  that  by  reason  of  the  provisions  of 
this  act  any  heir  or  devisee  cannot  take  real  property 
in  this  State  which,  but  for  said  provisions,  said  heir 
or  devisee  would  take  as  such,  the  court,  instead  of 
ordering  a  distribution  of  such  real  property  to  such 
heir  or  devisee,  shall  order  a  sale  of  said  real  property 
to  be  made  in  the  manner  provided  by  law  for  probate 
sales  of  real  property,  and  the  proceeds  of  such  sale 
shall  be  distributed  to  such  heirs  or  devisee  in  lieu 
of  such  real  property. 

Section  5. — Any  real  property  hereafter  acquired  in 
fee  in  violation  of. the  provisions  of  this  act  by  any 
alien  mentioned  in  section  two  of  this  act,  or  by  any 
company,  association  or  corporation  mentioned  in 
section  three  of  this  act,  shall  escheat  to,  and  become 
and  remain  the  property  of  the  State  of  California. 
The  attorney  general  shall  institute  proceedings  to 
have  the  escheat  of  such  real  property  adjudged  and 
enforced  in  the  manner  provided  by  section  474  of  the 
Political  Code  and  title  eight,  part  three  of  the  Code 
of  Civil  Procedure.  Upon  the  entry  of  final  judgment 
in  such  proceedings,  the  title  to  such  real  property 
shall  pass  to  the  State  of  California.  The  provisions  of 
this  section  and  of  sections  two  and  three  of  this  act 
shall  not  apply  to  any  real  property  hereafter  acquired 


206  Appendix  C 

in  the  enforcement  or  in  satisfaction  of  any  lien  now 
existing  upon,  or  interest  in  such  property,  so  long  as 
such  real  property  so  acquired  shall  remain  the  prop 
erty  of  the  alien,  company,  association  or  corporation 
acquiring  the  same  in  such  manner. 

Section  6. — Any  leasehold  or  other  interest  in  real 
property  less  than  the  fee,  hereafter  acquired  in  viola 
tion  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  by  any  alien  men 
tioned  in  section  two  of  this  act,  or  by  any  company, 
association  or  corporation  mentioned  in  section  three 
of  this  act,  shall  escheat  to  the  State  of  California. 
The  attorney  general  shall  institute  proceedings  to 
have  such  escheat  adjudged  and  enforced  as  provided 
in  section  five  of  this  act.  In  such  proceedings  the 
court  shall  determine  and  adjudge  the  value  of  such 
leasehold,  or  other  interest  in  such  real  property,  and 
enter  judgment  for  the  State  for  the  amount  thereof 
together  with  costs.  Thereupon  the  court  shall  order  a 
sale  of  the  real  property  covered  by  such  leasehold,  or 
other  interest,  in  the  manner  provided  by  section  1271 
of  the  Code  of  Civil  Procedure.  Out  of  the  proceeds 
arising  from  such  sale,  the  amount  of  the  judgment 
rendered  for  the  State  shall  be  paid  into  the  State 
Treasury  and  the  balance  shall  be  deposited  with  and 
distributed  by  the  court  in  accordance  with  the  in 
terest  of  the  parties  therein. 

Section  7. — Nothing  in  this  act  shall  be  construed 
as  a  limitation  upon  the  power  of  the  State  to  enact 
laws  with  respect  to  the  acquisition,  holding  or  dis 
posal  by  aliens  of  real  property  in  this  State. 

Section  8. — All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent 
or  in  conflict  with  the  provisions  of  this  act,  are  hereby 
repealed. 


APPENDIX  D 

ALIEN   LAND   LAW 

(Adopted  November  2,  1920) 

PROPERTY  RIGHTS  AND  DISABILITIES  OF  ALIENS  IN 
CALIFORNIA 

Alien  Land  Law.  Initiative  Act.  Permits  Acquisition 
and  Transfer  of  Real  Property  by  Aliens  Eligible 
to  Citizenship,  to  Same  Extent  as  Citizens  Except 
as  Otherwise  Provided  by  Law;  Permits  Other 
Aliens,  and  Companies,  Associations,  and  Cor 
porations  in  Which  they  Hold  Majority  Interest, 
to  Acquire  and  Transfer  Real  Property  Only  as 
Prescribed  by  Treaty,  but  Prohibiting  Appoint 
ment  Thereof  as  Guardians  of  Estates  of  Minors 
Consisting  Wholly  or  Partially  of  Real  Property 
or  Shares  in  Such  Corporations;  Provides  for 
Escheats  in  Certain  Cases;  Requires  Reports  of 
Property  Holdings  to  Facilitate  Enforcement  of 
Act;  Prescribes  Penalties  and  Repeals  Conflict 
ing  Acts. 

An  act  relating  to  the  rights,  powers,  and  disabilities  of 
aliens  and  of  certain  companies,  associations,  and 
corporations  with  respect  to  property  in  this  State, 
providing  for  escheats  in  certain  cases,  prescribing 
the  procedure  therein,  requiring  reports  of  certain 
property  holdings  to  facilitate  the  enforcement  of 

207 


2o8  Appendix  D 

this  act,  prescribing  penalties  for  violation  of  the 
provisions  hereof,  and  repealing  all  acts  or  parts  of 
acts  inconsistent  or  in  conflict  herewith. 

The  people  of  the  State  of  California  do  enact  as  follows: 
Section  i. — All  aliens  eligible  to  citizenship  under 
the  laws  of  the  United  States  may  acquire,  possess, 
enjoy,  transmit,  and  inherit  real  property,  or  any 
interest  therein,  in  this  State,  in  the  same  manner  and 
to  the  same  extent  as  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
except  as  otherwise  provided  by  the  laws  of  this  State. 
Section  2. — All  aliens  other  than  those  mentioned  in 
section  one  of  this  act  may  acquire,  possess,  enjoy, 
and  transfer  real  property,  or  any  interest  therein,  in 
this  State,  in  the  manner  and  to  the  extent  and  for  the 
purpose  prescribed  by  any  treaty  now  existing  between 
the  Government  of  the  United  States  and  the  nation 
or  country  of  which  such  alien  is  a  citizen  or  subject, 
and  not  otherwise. 

Section  3. — Any  company,  association  or  corpora 
tion  organized  under  the  laws  of  this  or  any  other 
State  or  nation,  of  which  a  majority  of  the  members  are 
aliens  other  than  those  specified  in  section  one  of  this 
act,  or  in  which  a  majority  of  the  issued  capital  stock  is 
owned  by  such  aliens,  may  acquire,  possess,  enjoy,  and 
convey  real  property,  or  any  interest  therein,  in  this 
State,  in  the  manner  and  to  the  extent  and  for  the 
purposes  prescribed  by  any  treaty  now  existing  be 
tween  the  Government  of  the  United  States  and  the 
nation  or  country  of  which  such  members  or  stock 
holders  are  citizens  or  subjects,  and  not  otherwise. 
Hereafter  all  aliens  other  than  those  specified  in  section 
one  hereof  may  become  members  of  or  acquire  shares 
of  stock  in  any  company,  association  or  corporation 


Appendix  D  209 

that  is  or  may  be  authorized  to  acquire,  possess,  enjoy 
or  convey  agricultural  land,  in  the  manner  and  to  the 
extent  and  for  the  purposes  prescribed  by  any  treaty 
now  existing  between  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  and  the  nation  or  country  of  which  such  alien 
is  a  citizen  or  subject,  and  not  otherwise. 

Section  4. — Hereafter  no  alien  mentioned  in  section 
two  hereof  and  no  company,  association  or  corporation 
mentioned  in  section  three  hereof,  may  be  appointed 
guardian  of  that  portion  of  the  estate  of  a  minor  which 
consists  of  property  which  such  alien  or  such  company, 
association  or  corporation  is  inhibited  from  acquiring, 
possessing,  enjoying  or  transferring  by  reason  of  the 
provisions  of  this  act.  The  public  administrator  of  the 
proper  county,  or  any  other  competent  person  or  cor 
poration,  may  be  appointed  guardian  of  the  estate  of  a 
minor  citizen  whose  parents  are  ineligible  to  appoint 
ment  under  the  provisions  of  this  section. 

On  such  notice  to  the  guardian  as  the  court  may 
require,  the  superior  court  may  remove  the  guardian 
of  such  an  estate  whenever  it  appears  to  the  satisfac 
tion  of  the  court : 

(a)  That  the  guardian  has  failed  to  file  the  report 
required  by  the  provisions  of  section  five  hereof;  or 

(b)  That  the  property  of  the  ward  has  not  been  or 
is  not  being  administered  with  due  regard  to  the 
primary  interest  of  the  ward;  or 

(c)  That  facts  exist  which  would  make  the  guardian 
ineligible  to  appointment  in  the  first  instance;  or 

(d)  That  facts  establishing  any  other  legal  ground 
for  removal  exist. 

Section  5. — (a)  The  term  "trustee"  as  used  in  this 
section  means  any  person,  company,  association  or 
corporation  that  as  guardian,  trustee,  attorney-in-fact 


2io  Appendix  D 

or  agent,  or  in  any  other  capacity  has  the  title,  custody 
or  control  of  property,  or  some  interest  therein,  belong 
ing  to  an  alien  mentioned  in  section  two  hereof,  or  to 
the  minor  child  of  such  an  alien,  if  the  property  is  of 
such  a  character  that  such  alien  is  inhibited  from 
acquiring,  possessing,  enjoying  or  transferring  it. 

(6)  Annually  on  or  before  the  thirty-first  day  of 
January  every  such  trustee  must  file  in  the  office  of  the 
Secretary  of  State  of  California  and  in  the  office  of  the 
county  clerk  of  each  county  in  which  any  of  the  prop 
erty  is  situated,  a  verified  written  report  showing : 

(1)  The  property,  real  or  personal,  held  by  him  for 
or  on  behalf  of  such  an  alien  or  minor ; 

(2)  A  statement  showing  the  date  when  each  item 
of  such  property  came  into  his  possession  or  control; 

(3)  An  itemized  account  of  all  expenditures,  in 
vestments,  rents,  issues,  and  profits  in  respect  to  the 
administration  and  control  of  such  property  with  par 
ticular  reference  to  holdings  of  corporate  stock  and 
leases,  cropping  contracts,  and  other  agreements  in  re 
spect  to  land  and  the  handling  or  sale  of  products 
thereof. 

(c)  Any  person,  company,  association  or  corporation 
that  violates  any  provision  of  this  section  is  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanor  and  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  ex 
ceeding  one  thousand  dollars  or  by  imprisonment  in 
the  county  jail  not  exceeding  one  year,  or  by  both  such 
fine  and  imprisonment. 

(d)  The  provisions  of  this  section  are  cumulative 
and  are  not  intended  to  change  the  jurisdiction  or  the 
rules  of  practice  of  courts  of  justice. 

Section  6. — Whenever  it  appears  to  the  court  in  any 
probate  proceeding  that  by  reason  of  the  provisions  of 
this  act  any  heir  or  devisee  cannot  take  real  property 


Appendix  D  211 

in  this  State  or  membership  or  shares  of  stock  in  a 
company,  association  or  corporation  which,  but  for 
said  provisions,  said  heir  or  devisee  would  take  as  such, 
the  court,  instead  of  ordering  a  distribution  of  such 
property  to  such  heir  or  devisee,  shall  order  a  sale  of 
said  property  to  be  made  in  the  manner  provided  by 
law  for  probate  sales  of  property  and  the  proceeds  of 
such  sale  shall  be  distributed  to  such  heir  or  devisee 
in  lieu  of  such  property. 

Section  7. — Any  real  property  hereafter  acquired  in 
fee  in  violation  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  by  any 
alien  mentioned  in  section  two  of  this  act,  or  by  any 
company,  association  or  corporation  mentioned  in 
section  three  of  this  act,  shall  escheat  to,  and  become 
and  remain  the  property  of  the  State  of  California. 
The  attorney  general  or  district  attorney  of  the  proper 
county  shall  institute  proceedings  to  have  the  excheat 
of  such  real  property  adjudged  and  enforced  in  the 
manner  provided  by  section  four  hundred  seventy- 
four  of  the  Political  Code  and  title  eight,  part  three  of 
the  Code  of  Civil  Procedure.  Upon  the  entry  of  final 
judgment  in  such  proceedings,  the  title  to  such  real 
property  shall  pass  to  the  State  of  California.  The 
provisions  of  this  section  and  of  sections  two  and  three 
of  this  act  shall  not  apply  to  any  real  property  here 
after  acquired  in  the  enforcement  or  in  satisfaction  of 
any  lien  now  existing  upon,  or  interest  in  such  prop 
erty,  so  long  as  such  real  property  so  acquired  shall 
remain  the  property  of  the  alien,  company,  association 
or  corporation  acquiring  the  same  in  such  manner. 
No  alien,  company,  association  or  corporation  men 
tioned  in  section  two  or  section  three  hereof  shall  hold 
for  a  longer  period  than  two  years  the  possession  of 
any  agricultural  land  acquired  in  the  enforcement  of 


212  Appendix  D 

or  in  satisfaction  of  a  mortgage  or  other  lien  hereafter 
made  or  acquired  in  good  faith  to  secure  a  debt. 

Section  8. — Any  leasehold  or  other  interest  in  real 
property  less  than  the  fee,  hereafter  acquired  in  viola 
tion  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  by  any  alien  men 
tioned  in  section  two  of  this  act,  or  by  any  company, 
association  or  corporation  mentioned  in  section  three 
of  this  act,  shall  escheat  to  the  State  of  California. 
The  attorney  general  or  district  attorney  of  the  proper 
county  shall  institute  proceedings  to  have  such  escheat 
adjudged  and  enforced  as  provided  in  section  seven  of 
this  act.  Ir>  such  proceedings  the  court  shall  determine 
and  adjudge  the  value  of  such  leasehold  or  other  in 
terest  in  such  real  property,  and  enter  judgment  for  the 
State  for  the  amount  thereof  together  with  costs. 
Thereupon  the  court  shall  order  a  sale  of  the  real 
property  covered  by  such  leasehold,  or  other  interest, 
in  the  manner  provided  by  section  twelve  hundred 
seventy-one  of  the  Code  of  Civil  Procedure.  Out  of 
the  proceeds  arising  from  such  sale,  the  amount  of  the 
judgment  rendered  for  the  State  shall  be  paid  into  the 
state  treasury  and  the  balance  shall  be  deposited  with 
and  distributed  by  the  court  in  accordance  with  the 
interest  of  the  parties  therein.  Any  share  of  stock  or 
the  interest  of  any  member  in  a  company,  association 
or  corporation  hereafter  acquired  in  violation  of  the 
provisions  of  section  three  of  this  act  shall  escheat  to 
the  State  of  California.  Such  escheat  shall  be  ad 
judged  and  enforced  in  the  same  manner  as  provided 
in  this  section  for  the  escheat  of  a  leasehold  or  other 
interest  in  real  property  less  than  the  fee. 

Section  9. — Every  transfer  of  real  property,  or  of  an 
interest  therein,  though  colorable  in  form,  shall  be  void 
as  to  the  state  and  the  interest  thereby  conveyed  or 


Appendix  D  213 

sought  to  be  conveyed  shall  escheat  to  the  State  if  the 
property  interest  involved  is  of  such  a  character  that 
an  alien  mentioned  in  section  two  hereof  is  inhibited 
from  acquiring,  possessing,  enjoying  or  transferring  it, 
and  if  the  conveyance  is  made  with  intent  to  prevent, 
evade  or  avoid  escheat  as  provided  for  herein. 

A  prima  facie  presumption  that  the  conveyance  is 
made  with  such  intent  shall  arise  upon  proof  of  any  of 
the  following  groups  of  facts : 

(a)  The  taking  of  the  property  in  the  name  of  a 
person  other  than  the  persons  mentioned  in  section 
two  hereof  if  the  consideration  is  paid  or  agreed  or 
understood  to  be  paid  by  an  alien  mentioned  in  section 
two  hereof: 

(b)  The  taking  of  the  property  in  the  name  of  a 
company,  association  or  corporation,  if  the  member 
ship  or  shares  of  stock  therein  held  by  aliens  men 
tioned  in  section  two  hereof,  together  with  the  member 
ships  or  shares  of  stock  held  by  others  but  paid  for  or 
agreed  or  understood  to  be  paid  for  by  such  aliens, 
would  amount  to  a  majority  of  the  membership  or  the 
issued  capital  stock  of  such  company,  association  or 
corporation; 

(c)  The  execution  of  a  mortgage  in  favor  of  an  alien 
mentioned  in  section  two  hereof  if  said  mortgagee  is 
given   possession,    control    or   management    of   the 
property. 

The  enumeration  in  this  section  of  certain  presump 
tions  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  preclude  other 
presumptions  or  inferences  that  reasonably  may  be 
made  as  to  the  existence  of  intent  to  prevent,  evade  or 
avoid  escheat  as  provided  for  herein. 

Section  10. — If  two  or  more  persons  conspire  to 
effect  a  transfer  of  real  property,  or  of  an  interest 


214  Appendix  D 

therein,  in  violation  of  the  provisions  hereof,  they  are 
punishable  by  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  or 
State  penitentiary  not  exceeding  two  years,  or  by  a 
fine  not  exceeding  five  thousand  dollars,  or  both. 

Section  n. — Nothing  in  this  act  shall  be  construed 
as  a  limitation  upon  the  power  of  the  State  to  enact 
laws  with  respect  to  the  acquisition,  holding  or  dis 
posal  by  aliens  of  real  property  in  this  State. 

Section  12. — All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent 
or  in  conflict  with  the  provisions  hereof  are  hereby 
repealed;  provided,  that — 

(a)  This  act  shall  not  affect  pending  actions  or 
proceedings,  but  the  same  may  be  prosecuted  and 
defended  with  the  same  effect  as  if  this  act  had  not 
been  adopted; 

(6)  No  cause  of  action  arising  under  any  law  of  this 
State  shall  be  affected  by  reason  of  the  adoption  of  this 
act  whether  an  action  or  proceeding  has  been  instituted 
thereon  at  the  time  of  the  taking  effect  of  this  act  or 
not  and  actions  may  be  brought  upon  such  causes  in 
the  same  manner,  under  the  same  terms  and  conditions, 
and  with  the  same  effect  as  if  this  act  had  not  been 
adopted. 

(c)  This  act  in  so  far  as  it  does  not  add  to,  take  from 
or  alter  an  existing  law,  shall  be  construed  as  a  con 
tinuation  thereof. 

Section  13. — The  legislature  may  amend  this  act 
in  furtherance  of  its  purpose  and  to  facilitate  its 
operation. 

Section  14. — If  any  section,  subsection,  sentence, 
clause  or  phrase  of  this  act  is  for  any  reason  held  to  be 
unconstitutional,  such  decision  shall  not  affect  the 
validity  of  the  remaining  portions  of  this  act.  The 
people  hereby  declare  that  they  would  have  passed 


Appendix  D  215 

/ 

this  act,  and  each  section,  subsection,  sentence,  clause 
and  phrase  thereof,  irrespective  of  the  fact  that  any 
one  or  more  other  sections,  subsections,  sentences, 
clauses  or  phrases  be  declared  unconstitutional. 


APPENDIX  E 
CROPS  RAISED  BY  JAPANESE  AND  THEIR  ACREAGE. 


Product. 

Total  Acreage 
of  Cultivation. 

Acreage  by 
Japanese. 

Percentage  of  Japanese 
Cultivation  Against 
Total  Cultivation. 

Berries 

6,500 

5,968 

91.8 

Celery 

4,OOO 

3,568 

89.2 

Asparagus 

I2,OOO 

9,927 

82.7 

Seeds 

2O,OOO 

15,847 

79.2 

Onions 

12,112 

9,25I 

76.3 

Tomatoes 

l6,OOO 

10,616 

66.3 

Cantaloupes 

15,000 

9,58i 

63-8 

Sugar  Beets 

102,949 

51,604 

50.1 

Green  Vegetables 

75,000 

17,852 

23.8 

Potatoes 

90J75 

18,830 

20.8 

Hops 

8,000 

1,260 

15.7 

Grapes 

360,000 

47,439 

I3-I 

Beans 

592,000 

77,107 

13.0 

Rice 

106,220 

16,640 

10.0 

Cotton 

179,860 

18,000 

10.0 

Corn 

85,000 

7,845 

9.2 

Fruits,  Nuts 

715,000 

29,210 

4.0 

Hay,  Grain 

2,200,000 

15,753 

o.o 

Reported  by  the  Japanese  Agricultural  Association 
of  California,  1919. 


116 


APPENDIX  F 
JAPANESE  IMMIGRATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATEI. 


Year. 

No.  of  Japanese 
Immigrants. 

Year. 

No.  of  Japanese 
Immigrants. 

1860.  . 

63 

l80l. 

1,136 
1,498 
1,648 

1,739 
480 

I,  IIO 

1,526 
2,230 
2-,844 
6,618 
4,908 

5,325 
6,990 

7,771 
4,319 
5,178 
9,948 
7,250 

1870.  . 

48 

1802.  . 

1871  .  . 

78 

l8ot.  . 

1872.  . 

17 

1894  

187-2 

1895  
1896  

1897  
1808.  . 

1874  
1875 

21 

1876    . 

1877 

7 

1899  
1900  
IQOI  .  . 

1878.  . 

2 

1870.  . 

4 

1880 

IOO2 

1881 

1  1 

1903  
1904  
1905  

1006 

1882 

1883  
1884 

27 
2O 

1885 

40 

IOO7. 

1886  
1887    . 

194 
229 
404 
64O 

1008  . 

1888  
1889 

1890 

\j+\j 
60  1 

Year. 

Admitted. 

Departed. 

Balance. 

1QOQ 

I  50"* 

s  004 

—  7.41  1 

IQIO 

I  cc2 

c  O24 

—  T.  472 

I9II  
1912           .                 .  . 

4,282 
5,358 

5,869 
c  477 

-1,587 

—           70 

IQI1 

6,771 

5,647 

+  1,124 

I9H  
IQI  5 

8,462 
O.O20 

6,300 
5,Q67 

+2,162 

+3,0^2 

1916 

0  IOO 

6  022 

+2,178 

IOI7 

0  I  SO 

6  581 

+  2,578 

1018 

II.  14"? 

7.6oi 

+  1  452 

IQIO 

II.4O4 

8,328 

+  ^,O76 

TQ2O 

12,868 

11,662 

+  1,206 

The  above  is  taken  from  the  Annual  Report  of  the 
Commissioner  General  of  Immigration. 

217 


APPENDIX  G 


JAPANESE  ADMITTED  INTO  CONTINENTAL  UNITED  STATES: 
ARRIVALS  AND  DEPARTURES. 


Year. 

Number  of 
Arrivals. 

Departed. 

Total  Gains 
Up  to  Date. 

1861-1870     ' 
1871-1880 
1881-1890 
1891-1900 
1901-1910 
1911-1920 

218' 
149 
2,27O 
20,829 

54,838  j 
87,576 

165,880 
15,000 

(estimat 

ed) 

25,000 

(estimated) 

J7<>,404 

C«-_.  ~**&—  --  ~  *• 

Total. 

No.  of  transient  im 
migrants      from 
Hawaii  

Total 

180,880 

95.404 

87,476 

APPENDIX  H 
IMMIGRANTS  AND  NON-IMMIGRANTS. 


Percentage  of 

Year. 

Total  Number 
Admitted. 

Immigrants. 

Non-Immigrants. 

Non-Immigrants 
Against  Total 
Number  Admitted 

1909 

1,593 

255 

1,338 

84.0 

I9IO 

1,552 

116 

1,436 

92.5 

I9II 

4,282 

736 

3,546 

83.0 

1912 

5,358 

894 

4464 

83-3 

1913 

6,771 

i,37i 

5,400 

79-7 

1914 

8,462 

1,762 

6,700 

79.1 

1915 

9,029 

2,214 

6,815 

75-5 

1916 

9,100 

2,958 

6,142 

67.5 

1917 

9,159 

2,838 

6,321 

69.0 

1918 

11,143 

2,604 

8,539 

76.6 

Taken  from  Kawakami,  Japan  Review,  vol.  iv.,  p.  76. 


218 


APPENDIX  I 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  JAPANESE  AND  CHINESE  POPU 
LATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  JAPANESE   POPULATION. 


Census. 

1880 

1890 

IQOO 

1910 

Total  United  States.  .  .  . 

148 

2039 

24,326 

72,157 

New  England 

14 

4.e 

89 

272 

Middle  Atlantic  
East  North  Central  
West  North  Central.... 
South  Atlantic  

27 

7 
i 

c 

202 
101 

16 

•K 

446 
126 
223 
20 

1,643 
482 
1,000 

IS6 

East  South  Central.  ... 
West  South  Central.  .  .  . 
Mountain  

c 

19 
42 
27 

7 

30 

5.IO7 

26 
428 
10.447 

89 

1,  5^2 

18,296 

57.7O^ 

DISTRIBUTION   OF  CHINESE    POPULATION. 


Census. 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

United  States 

105  465 

IO7  488 

89861 

71  5^1 

New  England  

401 

1.488 

4.2OT 

"1,  4QO 

Middle  Atlantic  

1,277 

4,689 

IO.4QO 

8,189 

East  North  Central  
West  North  Central  
South  Atlantic 

390 
423 

74 

1,254 
1,097 
660 

2,533 
1,135 
I  701 

3,451 
1,195 
I  582 

East  South  Central  
West  South  Central.  .  .  . 
Mountain    

90 

758 
14,274 

274 
1,173 
11.572 

427 

1,555 

7.Q5O 

414 

1,303 
5.6l4 

Pacific     

87,828 

85.272 

50,770 

46.32O 

Taken  from  Gulick,  American  Democracy  and  Asi 
atic  Citizenship,  pp.  152,  177. 

919 


APPENDIX  J 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  JAPANESE  IN  UNITED  STATES. 

(According  to  Consular  Division  as  Reported  by  Foreign  Department, 

Japan.) 


Districts. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total  for  1919. 

Seattle  

I4..S68 

4,7,07 

l8,o6s 

Portland 

c  820 

I  6^7 

7  466 

San  Francisco 

•77.771; 

16,578 

C7.QK7 

Los  Angeles  

22,64.4 

9,861 

72,  SOS 

Chicago  

2,1^6 

378 

2,714 

New  York 

-1  7,20 

284. 

7,604. 

86,072 

33,135 

119,207 

290 


APPENDIX  K 

AN  ABSTRACT  OF  EXPATRIATION  LAW  OF  JAPAN 

Article  XVIII. — When  a  Japanese,  by  becoming  the 
wife  of  a  foreigner,  has  acquired  the  husband's  nation 
ality,  then  such  Japanese  loses  her  Japanese 
nationality. 

Article  XX. — A  person  who  voluntarily  acquires  a 
foreign  nationality  loses  Japanese  nationality.  In 
case  a  Japanese  subject,  who  has  acquired  foreign 
nationality  by  reason  of  his  or  her  birth  in  a  foreign 
country  has  domiciled  in  that  country,  he  or  she  may 
be  expatriated  with  the  permission  of  the  Minister  of 
State  for  Home  Affairs.  The  application  for  the  per 
mission  referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph  shall 
be  made  by  the  legal  representative  in  case  the  per 
son  to  be  expatriated  is  younger  than  fifteen  years  of 
age.  If  the  person  in  question  is  a  minor  above  fifteen 
years  of  age,  or  a  person  adjudged  incompetent,  the 
application  can  be  made  with  the  consent  of  his  or 
her  legal  representative  or  guardian.  A  stepfather,  a 
stepmother,  a  legal  mother,  or  a  guardian  may  not 
make  the  application  or  give  the  consent  prescribed  in 
the  preceding  paragraph  without  the  consent  of  the 
family  council.  A  person  who  has  been  expatriated 
loses  Japanese  nationality. 

Article  XXIV. — Notwithstanding  the  provisions  of 
the  preceding  six  articles  a  male  of  full  seventeen  years 
or  upwards  does  not  lose  Japanese  nationality,  unless  he 

321 


222  Appendix  K 

has  completed  active  service  in  the  army  or  navy,  or 
he  is  under  no  obligation  to  enter  into  it.  A  person 
who  actually  occupies  an  official  post— civil  or  mili 
tary — does  not  lose  Japanese  nationality  notwith 
standing  the  provisions  of  the  foregoing  seven  articles. 
Article  XXVI. — A  person  who  has  lost  Japanese 
nationality  in  accordance  with  Article  XX  may  re 
cover  Japanese  nationality  provided  that  he  or  she 
possesses  a  domicile  in  Japan,  but  this  does  not  apply 
when  the  person  mentioned  in  Article  XVI  has  lost 
Japanese  nationality.  In  case  the  person  who  has  lost 
Japanese  nationality  in  accordance  with  the  provision 
of  Article  XX  is  younger  than  fifteen  years  of  age,  the 
application  for  the  permission  prescribed  in  the  pre 
ceding  paragraph  shall  be  made  by  the  father  who  is 
the  member  of  the  family  to  which  such  person  be 
longed  at  the  time  of  his  expatriation;  should  the 
father  be  unable  to  do  so,  the  application  shall  be  made 
by  the  mother;  if  the  mother  is  unable  to  do  so,  by 
the  grandfather;  and  if  the  grandfather  is  unable  to 
do  so,  then  by  the  grandmother. 


APPENDIX  L 

A    MINUTE    OF    HEARING    AT    SEATTLE,    WASHINGTON, 
BEFORE      THE      HOUSE      SUB-COMMITTEE      ON 
IMMIGRATION  AND  NATURALIZATION 

DIRECT  EXAMINATION 

July  27,  1920. 
Evening  Session 
SEATTLE 

JAMES  SAKAMOTO,  produced  as  a  witness,  having 
been  first  duly  sworn,  testi 
fied  as  follows: 

QUESTIONS  BY  MR.  Box: 

Q.  What  is  your  name? 

A .  James  Sakamoto. 

Q.  Where  do  you  live  ? 

A.  1609  Yesler  Way. 

Q.  You  were  born  in  the  United  States? 

A.  Yes,  sir. 

Q.  Where  were  you  born? 

A.  In  Seattle,  Washington. 

Q.  Right  here? 

A.  Yes. 

Q.  Are  you  full  of  Seattle  spirits? 

A.  You  bet. 

Q.  You  only  refer  to  one  kind.    How  old  are  you  ? 

A .  Seventeen.    I  was  born  in  1903 ;  March  22d. 


224  Appendix  L 

Q.     You  go  to  school  here? 

A.     Oh,  yes. 

Q.     In  the  high  school  ? 

A.     The  Franklin  High. 

Q.  About  how  many  boys  are  there  here  in  and 
about  Seattle  that  were  born  here,  along  about  your 
age,  from  three  or  four  years  younger  to  two  or  three 
years  older? 

A.  Well,  I  only  know  of  the  fellows  that  I  asso 
ciate  with.  I  can't  tell  you  the  fellows  that  I  don't 
know  about. 

Q.     Do  you  know  a  number  ? 

A.     I  don't  know  many  of  them. 

Q.     A  half  a  dozen  ? 

Q.  How  many  in  your  high  school  are  Japanese 
boys? 

A.     I  think  I  am  the  only  one. 

Q.  Are  there  many  young  ladies?  Do  you  know 
this  young  lady  that  just  testified  ? 

A.     Yes,  sir. 

Q.  Are  there  many  such  nice  looking  girls  as  she 
is  in  Seattle? 

A.     You  better  ask  them. 

Q.     You  get  along  all  right  in  school  ? 

A.     Oh,  yes,  sir. 

Q.  You  don't  have  any  trouble  with  your  classes, 
and  boys? 

A.     I  have  lots  of  fun. 

Q.     You  have  a  good  time  ? 

A.     Yes,  sir. 

Q.     Did  you  attend  the  Japanese  Language  School  ? 

A.     Yes,  sir;  eight  years. 

Q.     What  did  they  teach  you  there  ? 

A .     Taught  me  Japanese. 


Appendix  L  225 

Q.    The  Japanese  language  ? 

A.    Yes,  sir. 

Q.     Did  they  teach  you  Japanese  history  ? 

A.     I  wasn't  able  to  learn  very  quick. 

Q.  You  were  not  very  quick  to  learn,  but  they  did 
that,  teach  the  history  of  Japan  ? 

A.    They  tried  to. 

Q.  Didn't  they  succeed  with  a  boy  as  bright  as 
you  are,  going  to  high  school  ? 

A.  They  were  successful,  but  I  did  not  succeed. 
See? 

Q.    You  read  the  Japanese  language  now  ? 

A .     I  can't  read  it ;  it  is  too  hard. 

Q.     You  really  can't  read  any? 

A.  There  are  three  different  kinds  of  words  and 
letters.  I  can  read  the  easiest. 

Q.  In  other  words,  you  have  adopted  the  road  of 
least  resistance  with  the  Japanese  language  ? 

A.     Sure. 

Q.     You  talk  Japanese  with  your  parents? 

A .     In  a  simple,  broken  language. 

Q.     Do  they  talk  English? 

A.  They  can't  talk  English.  They  have  been  here 
quite  long,  but  they  have  never  had  a  chance  to  talk 
English. 

Q.  Let  me  ask  you  this ;  do  you  get  along  very  well 
with  them? 

A.     In  my  home? 

Q.     Yes. 

A.    Sure.    They  are  my  father  and  mother. 

Q.  (Mr.  Siegel.)  And  you  say  that  you  don't 
understand  the  Japanese  language  sufficiently  well  to 
carry  on  a  conversation  with  them? 

A.    I  understand  them,  but  that  is  about  all. 

if 


226  Appendix  L 

Q.  How  do  they  arrange  to  get  along  with  you,  if 
you  can't  speak  the  language  orally? 

A.  They  just  about  guess  what  I  am  trying  to  tell 
them. 

Q.  In  other  words,  you  are  always  asking  for 
money.  Is  that  the  principal  idea? 

A.     May  be,  not  any  more,  but  I  used  to. 

Q.  When  they  talk  to  you,  you  understand  them 
all  right? 

A.     Oh,  yes;  I  understand  them. 

Q.  (Mr.  Raker.)  Would  you  tell  us  why,  you 
haven't,  or  didn't,  and  haven't  given  more  attention 
and  worked  harder  to  become  familiar  with  the  Jap 
anese  language  and  history  ? 

A .     That  is  a  hard  question  to  ask  me  just  now. 

Q.  I  know  it  is,  but  I  think  you  know,  my  boy; 
tell  us  in  your  own  language,  in  your  own  way? 

A .  Well,  suppose  we  go  to  school  five  hours  a  day, 
the  American  school.  We  attend  Japanese  school  for 
two  hours;  that  is  overwork  two  hours,  you  see,  and 
we  don't  get  paid  for  over  time. 

Q.  I  guess  you  are  about  pretty  near  right,  didn't 
I?  You  are  the  kind  of  a  fellow  that  is  going  to  be 
thinking  a  little  about  money  as  you  grow  up,  and  you 
are  going  to  make  it  in  Seattle. 

A .     I  haven't  got  a  business. 

Q.  (Mr.  Raker.)  What  I  was  asking  that  question 
for,  I  am  going  to  put  it  direct.  I  want  you  to  give  me 
your  good  frank  answer,  which  I  know  you  will.  Is  it 
your  determination  when  you  get  a  little  older,  and 
begin  to  think  over  the  situation,  that  you  want  to 
become  familiar  with  the  English  language  and  under 
stand  the  American  ways  rather  than  to  devote  your 
time  to  Japanese  ways  and  language  ? 


Appendix  L  227 

A.  Well,  I  want  to  be  an  American  more  than  a 
Japanese.  I  was  born  here. 

Q.  That  is  one  of  the  reasons  you  haven't  devoted 
your  time  to  the  Japanese  language.  How  old  were 
you  when  you  started? 

A .  I  started  the  same  year  when  I  went  to  Gram 
mar  School. 

Q.     That  was  when? 

A.  Five  years  old.  Five  years  old  I  started  to 
kindergarten,  and  at  six  I  started  to  Grammar 
School. 

Q.  So  when  you  started  to  kindergarten  did  you 
start  in  the  Japanese  School  ? 

A .     No,  when  I  was  six. 

Q.  And  you  did  that  from  the  time  you  were  six 
until  you  were  fourteen  ? 

A.     I  think  that  is  right,  fourteen. 

Q.     How  old  are  you  now  ? 

A .     Seventeen. 

Q.  You  have  to  renounce  the  Japanese  Emperor 
before  you  are  seventeen  ? 

A.     I  don't  know  a  thing  about  it. 

Q.  You  know,  don't  you,  that  you  are  claimed 
as  a  citizen  by  Japan,  and  also  by  the  United 
States. 

A.     I  don't  care.    I  was  born  here. 

Q.  Is  it  your  intention  to  remain  an  American 
citizen  or  be  a  Japanese  citizen  ? 

A.  Why  shouldn't  I  remain  an  American?  I  was 
born  here.  Why  should  I  go  back  there  ?  This  is  my 
home  here. 

Q.     You  intend  to  remain  an  American  citizen  ? 

A.     Nobody  is  going  to  stop  me. 

Q.    That's  what  I  want  to  get  at.    Do  you  remem- 


228  Appendix  L 

her  when  you  were  first  told  that  you  were  a  native- 
born  American  citizen;  do  you  remember  when  that 
was  first  told  you  ? 

A.     I  don't  know. 

Q.  How  long  have  you  felt  the  pride  that  you  are  a 
young  American  citizen?  How  long  have  you  held 
that  feeling  of  pride? 

A .     Since  I  went  to  Grammar  School. 

Q.  Has  every  young  Japanese  boy  here  expressed 
that  feeling  as  you  do  to  us;  have  you  heard  them  talk 
about  it  ? 

A.  They  don't  talk  about  it  much.  It  is  mostly 
their  home  training.  My  father  and  mother  don't 
care  whether  I  am  an  American.  They  would  rather 
have  me  an  American. 

Q.  And  they  have  encouraged  you  to  be  an 
American  ? 

A.     Sure. 

Q.     And  your  teachers  have? 

A.     Oh,  yes,  naturally. 

Q.     And  you  like  the  idea? 

A.     Sure. 

Q.  Your  father  and  mother  intend  to  remain  here 
all  their  lives,  do  they,  as  far  as  you  know  ? 

A.  Well,  I  would  like  to  have  them  go  back  and 
see  their  home  once  again,  but  that  is  about  all.  I 
don't  know  what  I  can  do. 

Q.  (Mr.  Vaile.)  As  far  as  you  know,  their  own 
intention  is  to  live  here,  except  for  a  visit  home,  per 
haps,  the  rest  of  their  lives  ? 

A.     Yes,  sir. 

Q.  Suppose  you  visit  Japan.  You  know,  don't  you, 
that  the  Japanese  Emperor  still  claims  you  as  his 
subject  ?  Suppose  you  are  required  to  render  military 


Appendix  L  229 

service  to  Japan,  what  would  be  your  position  on  that 
subject? 

A .  It  would  be  a  pretty  difficult  one,  but  I  will  get 
out  of  it. 

Q.  Following  that,  suppose  you  were  required  to 
render  military  service  to  the  United  States,  what  will 
be  your  position  ? 

A .     I  will  get  in. 

Q.  Exactly.  We  are  glad  to  meet  you.  Good  luck 
to  you. 

(Witness  Excused.) 


APPENDIX  M 

COMPARATIVE  STANDING  OF  INTELLIGENCE  AND  BE 
HAVIOR  OF  AMERICAN-BORN  JAPANESE  CHILDREN 
AND  AMERICAN  CHILDREN  DISCUSSED  BY  SEVERAL 
PRINCIPALS  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  OF  LOS 
ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA. 

Request  Sent  to  the  Board  of  Education  of  Los  Angeles, 
California. 

December  24,  1920. 
President  of  the 
Board  of  Education, 
Los  Angeles,  California. 

MY  DEAR  SIR: 

I  am  collecting  data  on  the  intellectual  and  moral 
status  of  American-born  Japanese  children.  Among 
the  data  the  most  important,  I  need  hardly  say,  are 
their  school  records. 

I  shall  highly  appreciate  your  courtesy  if  you  will  be 
pleased  to  provide  me  with  the  valuable  information 
you  have  at  your  command  bearing  on  the  subject. 
What  I  am  particularly  interested  in  is  the  average 
record  of  American-born  Japanese  children  and  its 
comparison  with  the  record  of  American  children. 
Yours  very  respectfully, 

(Signed)  T.  IYENAGA. 
230 


Appendix  M 

Method  of  Gathering  Material 

December  31,  1920. 
DEAR  MR.  SHAFER: 

May  I  trouble  you  to  select  two  of  your  schools  in 
which  you  have  the  largest  Japanese  attendance  and 
secure  for  me  at  your  earliest  possible  convenience 
data  as  to  the  number  of  Japanese  children  in  those 
schools  and  the  points  about  them  that  are  touched 
upon  in  the  accompanying  letter  ? 

My  thought  is  this — that  if  we  secure  records  from 
two  or  three  schools  where  we  have  the  largest  Jap 
anese  attendance,  this  will  suffice  as  a  basis  for  decision 
as  to  the  other  such  schools. 

MRS.  DORSEY. 


January  7,  1921. 

Mrs.  Adda  Wilson  Hunter,  Principal,  Moneta  School, 
Miss  Mary  A.  Colestock,  Principal,  Hewitt  St.  School, 
Miss  Mary  A.  Henderson,  Principal,  Amelia  St.  School, 
Miss  Lizzie  A.  McKenzie,  Principal,  Hobart  Blvd. 
School. 

A  communication  has  been  received  from  Dr.  T. 
lyenaga  stating  that  he  is  collecting  data  on  the  in 
tellectual  and  moral  status  of  American-born  Japanese 
children.  He  is  anxious  to  know  the  average  record 
of  American-born  Japanese  children  in  the  schools  and 
how  it  compares  with  the  record  of  American  children. 

Will  you  kindly  send  me  statement  concerning  the 
results  in  your  schools? 

Very  truly  yours, 

Assistant  Superintendent. 


232  Appendix  M 

Replies 

(i) 

Office  of  the  Principal  of  Hewitt  St.  School,  District 
No.  151 

Report  of  American-born  Japanese  Children. 

January  17,  1921. 

MY  DEAR  MR.  SHAFER: 

The  American-born  Japanese  children,  who  are 
enrolled  in  this  school,  compare  most  favorably  with 
the  American  children  both  intellectually  and  morally. 
They  are  like  all  groups  of  children.  We  find  some 
very  bright  children  and  some  very  dull  ones.  As  a 
whole,  they  are  more  persevering  and  more  dependable 
than  the  class  of  white  children  found  in  this  school. 

Miss  Oliver,  who  has  been  working  with  the  Jap 
anese  for  the  past  four  years,  said,  "When  with  them 
I  feel  that  I  am  in  the  company  of  well-bred 

Americans."  ~    , 

Truly  yours, 

MARY  A.  COLE  STOCK, 
Prin. 

(2) 
Amelia  St.  School,  City 

January  19,  1921. 

MR.  HARRY  M.  SHAFER, 
A  ssistant  Superintendent , 
Los  Angeles  City  Public  Schools, 
Los  Angeles,  California. 

DEAR  MR.  SHAFER: 

My  general  observation  has  been  that  given  any 
thing  of  an  equal  chance,  children  are  children,  human 


Appendix  M  333 

nature  is  human  nature,  and  brains  are  brains — what 
ever  the  mother  tongue  may  be.  Compared  with  our 
other  foreign  children,  or  with  other  children  born  in 
America  of  foreign  parentage  not  Japanese,  keeping  in 
mind  the  differences  in  social  position  that  exist  in  all 
classes,  whatever  the  nationality  may  be,  I  cannot  see 
much  difference  along  any  line  between  our  Japanese 
children  and  our  Mexicans,  our  French  and  our  Ital 
ians  ;  nor  do  I  think  any  of  them  differ  radically  from 
what  we  are  apt  to  term  "American"  children.  Few 
families  are  many  generations  away  from  some  foreign 
ancestors.  .  .  . 

Our  Japanese  children  are  called  brighter  and  more 
studious,  sometimes,  than  the  others.  I  think  this  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  have,  in  many  cases,  ambi 
tious,  educated  parents  who  follow  school  work  up 
very  closely  in  the  home.  Where  home  restrictions  are 
lifted,  such  conditions  do  not  always  prevail,  any  more 
than  in  cases  of  other  neglected  children.  They  must 
be  studious.  Discipline  of  American-born  Japanese 
children  is  not  so  close  in  the  home  as  it  seems  to  be 
with  children  born  in  Japan  and  reared  along  Japanese 
lines,  yet  such  children  show  much  more  initiative  in 
all  of  their  work  at  school.  They  catch  the  American 
spirit. 

As  summary,  I  would  say  that  physically,  mentally, 
morally,  given  the  same  chance,  there  does  not  seem 
to  me  to  be  a  great  difference  among  children  of  the 
different  nationalities,  but  this  difference  is  most 
readily  noticed.  The  other  nationalities  do  assimilate 
quickly,  and  lose,  to  a  great  extent,  their  parents' 
national  traits  in  short  time;  but  it  is  exceedingly  hard 
to  get  the  same  results  with  our  Japanese  children. 
They  cling  to  one  another,  to  their  own  ways,  and  to 


234  Appendix  M 

their  own  language,  even  after  many  years  of  work  in 
public  schools,  where  most  social  barriers  are  broken 
down.  My  personal  feeling  in  the  matter  is  that  this 
condition  is  the  result  of  lack  of  American  education 
in  the  Japanese  homes  and  lack  of  American  touch 
with  the  Japanese  mothers. 

Our  Home  teachers  are  doing  much  to  help  along 
this  line,  but  it  is  slow  work,  and  work  that  takes  much 
time,  and  requires  great  tact  on  part  of  the  workers. 

Most  important  to  me  is  the  work  our  public  schools 
are  doing  with  the  Japanese  girls,  the  mothers  of  to 
morrow.  xr  lfi, 

Yours  respectfully, 

MARY  A.  HENDERSON. 

(3) 

Report  of  Intellectual  and  Moral  Status  of  American- 
born  Japanese  Children 

MONETA  SCHOOL,  Los  ANGELES  SCHOOL  DIST. 

As  a  rule  American-born  Japanese  children  know  no 
English  when  entering  school.  Their  progress  at  first, 
therefore,  is  more  slow  than  that  of  English  speaking 
children.  Japanese  children  require  one  year  to  com 
plete  one  half  year's  work  through  the  first,  second, 
and  third  grades.  After  the  third  grade  they  com 
plete  the  work  in  the  time  assigned. 

They  are  especially  good  in  handwork.    Their  chief 
difficulty  is  with  English.  In  application  they  rank  high. 
As  to  their  moral  status  they  are  neither  better  nor 
worse  than  other  children. 

MRS.  ADDA  WILSON  HUNTER, 
Principal  Moneta  School. 

January  14,  1921. 


Appendix  M  235 

Report  of  Intellectual  and  Moral  Status  of  American- 
Born  Japanese  Children 


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B-2 

2 

i  yr. 

7-8 

9 

Good 

i.  Handwork. 

2.  Do  not  speak 

English. 

A-2 

3 

i  yr. 

7-8 

10 

Good 

i.  Handwork. 

2.  Do  not  speak 

English. 

B-3 

2 

5  mos. 

8-9 

10 

Excel. 

Poor 

i.  Spelling, 

arithmetic. 

2.  English. 

A-3 

3 

i  yr. 

8-9 

10 

Fair 

Good 

i.  Spelling, 

arithmetic. 

2.  English. 

B-4 

i 

5  mos. 

9-10 

9 

Excel. 

Excel. 

i.  Arithmetic. 

2.  English. 

A-4 

i 

5  mos. 

9-10 

ii 

Excel. 

Excel. 

i.  Arithmetic, 

spelling. 

2.  English. 

B-5 

2 

5  mos. 

10-11 

II 

Excel. 

Excel. 

i.  Arithmetic, 

spelling. 

2.  English. 

B-6 

2 

5  mos. 

11-12 

10 

Good 

Excel. 

I  .  History, 

geography. 

2.  Arithmetic. 

A-6 

I 

5  mos. 

11-12 

12% 

Excel. 

Excel. 

I.  Arithmetic, 

history. 

2.  Geography. 

236  Appendix  M 

(4) 

HOBART  BLVD.  SCHOOL, 
Los  ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA, 
January  13,  1921. 

MR.  HARRY  M.  SHAFER, 
Assistant  Supt.  City  Schools. 

MY  DEAR  MR.  SHAFER: 

In  reply  to  your  inquiry  relative  to  the  American- 
born  Japanese  pupils  of  our  school,  I  enclose  state 
ment  as  to  results  noted  in  the  various  classes. 

Trusting  that  this  may  serve  the  purpose  desired, 
and  appreciating  your  very  kindly  interest, 
Sincerely, 

LIZZIE  A.  MCKENZIE, 

Principal. 
Hobart  Blvd.  School.  January  13,  1921. 

Report  on  Japanese  Pupils 
(American-born) 

Many  of  the  Japanese  fail  in  First  Grade  on  account 
of  inability  to  understand  the  English  language.  In 
succeeding  grades,  progress  is  satisfactory  as  shown 
by  the  following  tabulation  of  current  date : 


Enrolled. 

To  Be 
Promoted. 

To  Be 
Enrolled.              Promoted. 

B-i     16 

10 

A-3 

t 

A-i       7 

6 

B-4 

2 

B-2      5 

5 

A-4 

0 

A-2      4 

4 

B-5 

2 

B-3      i 

I 

£~5 

I 

B-6 

I 

A-6 

O 

Total 

enrolled,     40. 

Total 

promoted,  32. 

Appendix  M  237 

We  find  these  children  as  a  rule  clever  in  use  of  pen 
and  crayon,  possessing  light  touch,  having  correct 
ideas  of  form,  and  excellent  taste  in  selection  of  color. 

As  pupils  they  follow  direction  well,  and  are  usually 
free  from  faults  of  rudeness  or  improper  language. 
Of  the  forty  above  Kindergarten,  three  are  trouble 
some  and  are  persistent  cases.  In  general,  it  may  be 
said  that  these  children  as  a  class  compare  favorably 
with  others  in  matters  of  progress  and  of  conduct  as 
weU. 

LIZZIE  A.  MCKENZIE, 

Principal. 


LITERATURE  ON  THE  SUBJECT 

BOOKS 

ANNALS  OF  AMERICAN  ACADEMY  OF  POLITICAL  AND 
SOCIAL  SCIENCE,  January,  1921.  Present  Day  Im 
migration  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Japanese. 

ANNALS  OF  AMERICAN  ACADEMY  OF  POLITICAL  AND 
SOCIAL  SCIENCE,  September,  1909.  Chinese  and 
Japanese  in  America. 

GULICK,  SYDNEY  L.  American  Democracy  and  Asiatic 
Citizenship.  Scribners,  New  York,  1918.  The 
American- Japanese  Problem.  Scribners,  New  York, 
1914. 

ICHIHASHI,  Y.  Japanese  Immigration.  Marshall 
Press,  San  Francisco,  1915. 

KAWAKAMI,  K.  K.  American- Japanese  Relations. 
Revell,  New  York,  1912.  Asia  at  the  Door.  Revell, 
New  York,  1914.  Japan  in  the  World  Politics. 
Revell,  New  York,  1917. 

MASAOKA,  N.  (Editor).  Japan  to  America.  G.  P. 
Putnam's  Sons,  New  York,  1915. 

MILLIS,  H.  A.  The  Japanese  Problem  in  the  United 
States.  McMillan,  New  York,  1915. 

PITKIN,  WALTER  B.  Must  We  Fight  Japan?  The 
Century  Co.,  New  York,  1921. 

RUSSELL,  LINDSAY  (Editor).  America  to  Japan. 
G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York,  1915. 

SCHERER,  J.  A.  A.    The  Japanese  Crisis.   Stokes,  1915. 

238 


Literature  on  the  Subject  239 

THE  JAPANESE-AMERICAN  NEWS.  The  Japanese- 
American  Year  Book,  1910  and  1918.  San 
Francisco. 


OFFICIAL  PUBLICATIONS 

Annual  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner- 
General  of  Immigration. 

Bureau  of  Labor  (California).  Biennial  Reports,  and 
especially,  "Report  on  the  Japanese  in  California." 

California  and  the  Oriental.  Report  of  California 
State  Board  of  Control,  with  Governor  Wm.  D. 
Stephens' s  letter  addressed  to  Secretary  of  State 
Bainbridge  Colby.  California  State  Printing 
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Department  of  Commerce,  Bureau  of  Census. 
Chinese  and  Japanese  in  the  United  States,  1910. 
Bulletin  127,  Washington  Printing  Office,  1914. 

Immigration  Commission.  Changes  in  Bodily  Form 
of  Descendants  of  Immigrant.  Senate  Document, 
No.  208,  6 ist  Congress,  2nd  Session.  Washington 
Government  Printing  Office,  1910. 

Immigration  Laws  of  the  United  States.  (Revised 
Federal  Statutes). 

KAHN,  CONGRESSMAN.  Japanese-California  Problem. 
Congressional  Record,  60,  4:78-82,  December  9, 
1920. 

METCALF,  SECRETARY.  Report  on  the  Japanese 
School  Question. 

Naturalization  Laws  of  the  United  States.  (Revised 
Federal  Statutes.) 

Reports  of  the  Immigration  Commission.  Immi 
grants  in  the  Industries,  Vols.  23,  24,  25,  Senate 
Document,  No.  633,  6ist  Congress. 


240  Literature  on  the  Subject 

ROOSEVELT,  THEODORE.  Presidential  Message  to 
Congress,  1907.  House  of  Representatives;  Mes 
sage  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and 
Accompanying  Documents.  Part  I;  pp.  492-846. 
Ex.  Doc.  No.  i. 


PAMPHLETS 

CALIFORNIA  FARMERS'  CO-OPERATIVE  ASSOCIATION. 
Japanese  Immigration  and  the  Japanese  in  Cali 
fornia,  1919. 

CLEMENT,  E.  W.  Expatriation  of  Japanese  Abroad. 
Japanese  Association  of  America,  San  Francisco, 
1916. 

ELIOT,  CHAS.  W.  Friendship  between  the  United 
States  and  Japan.  Japanese  Merchants'  Associa 
tion,  Portland,  Oregon. 

GADSBY,  JOHN.  Foreign  Land-Ownership  and  Leasing 
in  Japan,  1920.  Japanese  Association  of  America, 
San  Francisco,  1914. 

GULICK,  SYDNEY  L.  How  Shall  Immigration  be  Regu 
lated?  1920.  Japan  and  the  Gentlemen's  Agreement. 
1920.  The  New  Anti-Japanese  Agitation.  1920. 

ICHIHASHI,  Y.  Japanese  Immigration,  Its  Status  in 
California.  1913. 

IRISH,  JOHN  P.  Campaign  of  Lies,  Stolen  Letters  of 
Senator  Phelan.  1920.  Shall  Japanese- Americans 
in  Idaho  be  Treated  with  Fairness  and  Justice  or 
Not?  1921. 

KAWAKAMI,  K.  K.  Senator  Phelan,  Dr.  Gulick  and  I. 
Bureau  of  Literary  Service,  San  Francisco,  1920. 

LAMONT,  THOMAS,  AND  OTHERS.    Japan.     1920. 

PEOPLE'S  LEAGUE  OF  JUSTICE.  Petition  by  People's 
League  of  Justice,  Los  Angeles,  California,  1920. 


Literature  on  the  Subject  241 

REA,  GEORGE  BRONSON.  Japan's  Right  to  Exist. 
Far  Eastern  Review,  Shanghai,  China,  1920. 

ROOSEVELT,  T.  America  and  Japan.  Reprint  from 
the  New  York  Times. 

SHIMA,  GEORGE.     An  Appeal  to  Justice.     1920. 

TAFT,  HENRY  W.  Our  Relations  with  Japan.  Japan 
Society,  New  York,  1920. 

THE  AMERICAN  COMMITTEE  OF  JUSTICE.  California 
and  the  Japanese.  Oakland,  California,  December, 
1920. 

TYNDALL,  PHILIP.  Proposed  Initiative  Measure  to  be 
Presented  to  the  Legislature  of  1921,  Seattle,  Wash 
ington. 

VANDERLIP,  FRANK.     Mr.  Vanderlip's  Message. 

WALLACE,  J.  B.  Waving  the  Yellow  Flag  in  Cali 
fornia.  Reprinted  from  the  Dearborn  Independent. 

WILLIAMS,  B.  H.  The  Case  against  the  Japanese. 
1920. 

ARTICLES  IN  PERIODICALS 

1 '  America  and  the  Japanese  Relations. ' '   WAINWRIGHT, 

S.  H.     Outlook,  124  :  392,  March,  1920. 
"America's  Responsibility  on  the  Pacific."     GREEN- 

BIE,  S.     North  American  Review,  212  :  71-79,  July, 

1920. 
"Another  Japanese  Problem."     McLEOD,   H.     New 

Republic,  24  :  184-6,  October  20,  1920. 
"Anti-Japanese   Agitation."    Business   Chronicle,   9, 

1 8  :  137-49,  September,  1920. 
"Asia's   American    Problem."     ROBINSON,    GEROID. 

Pacific  Review,  367-388,  Decerrrber,  1920. 
"California  and  the  Japanese."     KAWAKAMI,  K.  K. 

Nation,  112  :  173-174,  February  2,  1921. 

16 


242  Literature  on  the  Subject 

"California  and  the  Oriental."  The  Letter  of  WM. 
D.  STEPHENS  to  the  Secretary  of  State  Colby.  The 
Pacific  Review,  349-361,  December,  1920. 

" California- Japanese  Problem."  The  Pacific  Voice, 
5,  10 :  4-10. 

"California- Japanese  Question."  WOOLSEY,  THEO 
DORE  S.  The  American  Journal  of  International 
Laws,  Oxford  Press,  15,  i  :  24-26,  January,  1921. 

"Co-operation  between  Japan  and  America." 
KANEKO,  K.  Japan  Review,  24-26,  December, 
1920. 

"Discrimination  against  the  Japanese."  New  Repub 
lic,  24  : 135-6- 

"Future  of  Japanese-American  Relations."  SHIDE- 
HARA,  K.  Japan  Review,  170-171,  April,  1920. 

"  Hegemony  of  the  Pacific."   Living  Age,  316  :  638-40. 

"Japan,  a  Great  Economic  Power."  LONGFORD,  J. 
H.  Nineteenth  Century,  523  :  526-39,  September, 
1920. 

"Japan  and  America."  Far  Eastern  Review,  16  :  335- 
36. 

"Japan  and  the  United  States,  a  Suggestion."  OTTO, 
M.  C.  Japan  Review,  334-336,  October,  1920. 

"Japan  and  the  Japanese-California  Problem." 
IYENAGA,  T.  Cur  rent  History,  13,  i  :  1-7,  October, 
1920. 

"Japan  as  Colonizer."     Stead's  Review,  53,  7  :  358-9. 

"Japan  Challenges  Us  to  Control  California."  STOD- 
DARD,  L.  World's  Work,  40  :  48-85. 

"Japan  Our  New  Customer."  STARRETT,  W.  A. 
Scribner's,  66  :  517-18. 

"Japan's  Diplomacy  of  Necessity."  Living  Age,  316: 
638-640. 

"Japan's  New  Difficulties  with  China."     The  New 


Literature  on  the  Subject  243 

York  Times  Current  History,  457-458,  December, 

1920. 
"Japan's  Use  of  Her  Hegemony."    FERGUSON,  J.  C. 

North  American  Review,  210  :  456-459. 
"Japan's  Aggression."     INMAN,  J.   M.     Forum,  65, 

I  :  1-9,  January,  1921. 
"Japanese- American    Relations."      SHIDEHARA,    K. 

Outlook,  125  : 317-18,  June  16,  1920. 
"Japanese-American  Relations."     YOSHINO,  SAKUZO. 

Pacific  Review,  418-421,  December,  1920. 
"Japanese  and  the  Pacific  Coast."     RYDER,  R.  W. 

North    American   Review,   213,    I  :  1-15,   January, 

1921. 
"Japanese    Farmers'    Contribution    to    California." 

CHIEA,  TOYOJI.    Japan  Review,  212-13,  May,  1920. 
"Japanese  Imperialism  in  Siberia."     CHAMBERLAIN, 

W.  H.     Nation,  no  :  798-9. 
"Japanese  in  America."    TRENT,   P.  J.     Review  of 

Reviews,  61  :  76-8,  June,  1920. 
"Japanese  in  California."     BRIGGS,  A.  H.;  JOHNSON, 

H.  B.;  LOOFBOUROW,  I.  J.    Japan  Review,  166-170, 

April,  1920. 
"Japanese  in  California."     IRISH,  JOHN  P.     Japan 

Review,  7-72,  January,  1920. 

"Japanese  in  California."    JORDAN,  D.  S.     The  Paci 
fic  Review,  316-65,  December,  1920. 
"Japanese  Issue  in  California."  STODDARD,  L.  World's 

Work,  40,  5  :  585-600,  September,  1920. 
"Japanese  Language  Schools."     KAWAKAMI,  K.  K. 

Japan  Review,  14-15,  January,  1921. 
"Japanese  Problem  in  California."     LOCAN,  C.   A. 

Current  History,  13  :  7-11,  October,  1920. 
''Japanese  Pupils  and  American  Schools."    FULTON, 

C.  W.     North  American  Review,  December,  1906. 


244  Literature  on  the  Subject 

"Japanese  Question."  KAWAKAMI,  K.  K.  Pacific 
Review,  365-78,  December,  1920. 

"  Japanese  Views  of  California."  Literary  Digest,  67, 
i  :  20-1 . 

"Japanthropy."  WOOLSTON,  H.  B.  Pacific  Review, 
289-96,  December,  1920. 

"  Legal  Aspects  of  the  Japanese  Question."  Me  MUR 
RAY,  ORRIN  K.  Pacific  Review,  396-403,  December, 
1920. 

"Liberalism  in  Japan."     DEWEY,  JOHN.     Dial,  63  : 

283-5 ;  335-7 ;369-7 1- 
"Light  on  the  Japanese  Question."     KINNEY,  H.  W. 

Atlantic  Monthly,  126  :  832-42,  December,  1920. 
' '  Moral  Factors  in  Japanese  Policy . "     B  LAND  ,  J .  O .  P . 

Asia,  211-217,  March,  1920. 

"Oriental  Immigration  from  the  Canadian  Stand 
point."  BAGGS,  THEODORE  H.  Pacific  Review, 

408-418,  December,  1920. 
"Oriental  in  California."     IRISH,  JOHN  P.     Overland, 

75  :  332-3»  April,  1920. 
"Oriental  Problem,   as  the  Coast  See  It."     HART, 

J.  A.     World's  Work,  March,  1906. 
"Oriental     Question     and      Popular      Diplomacy." 

PRUETT,  ROBERT  L.  Japan  Review,  291-92,  August, 

1920. 

"'Possum    and    the    Dinosaur."     MASON,    G.     Out 
look,  125  :  319-20,  June  16,  1920. 
"Race  Prejudice:  Psychological  Analysis."    SATO,  K. 

Japan  Review,  237-238,  June,  1920. 
"Shall   East   and   West   Never   Meet?"     SATO,   K. 

Japan  Review,  336-37,  October,  1920. 
"Some  Aspects  of  the  So-called  Japanese  Problem." 

VANDERLIP,  F.  A.     Outlook,  125  :  380-4. 
"What  are  the  Japanese  Doing  towards  Americaniza- 


Literature  on  the  Subject  245 

tion?"    SASAMORI,  JUNZO.    Japan  Review,  22-24, 

December,  1920. 
"  What  Japan  Wants."     ADACHI,  K.     Nation,  181-82, 

Feburary  2,  1921. 
"When  East  is  West."     GULICK,  SYDNEY  L.     Outlook, 

102  :  12-14,  April  3,  1920. 


INDEX 


Adaptability,  Japanese  dis 
position  of,  20 

Esthetic  temperament  of  Jap 
anese,  13 

Age  distribution  of  Japanese  in 
California,  112 

Agreement,  Root-Takahira,  34 

Agriculture,  Japanese,  in  Cali 
fornia,  120-147;  causes  of 
Japanese  progress  in,  123- 
126 

Ainu,  14 

American-born  Japanese,  174- 
177 

American  disposition,  9 

Americanization,  criterion  of, 

I5I-I54 

Ancestors,  Japanese,  16 
An ti- Alien   Land   Laws,    138- 
142;  effect  of,  145;  Appen 
dixes  C,  D 
Anti- Japanese  Agitation,  causes 

of,  75-89 
Asiatic   policy,    Japan's,    33- 

45 

Assimilation,  137;  148-177; 
and  nationalism,  1 48- 1 59 ; 
meaning  of,  151-154;  bio 
logical,  155-162;  of  Japanese 
immigrants,  168-174 

Australia,  Japanese  emigra 
tion  to,  64-67 

Birth-rate  of  Japanese  in  Cali 
fornia,  109-119 

Boas,    Professor,   quoted,  163 
Bolsheviki,  38 
Buddhism,  25 
Bushido,  15,  21 


Japanese  agitation  in,  75! 
causes  of  Japanese  influx  to» 
50-63 ;  Christianity  among 
Japanese  in,  169-170;  com 
petition  in,  133-135;  con 
gestion  of  Japanese  in,  87- 
89;  cultural  assimilation  of 
Japanese  in,  166-168;  gene 
sis  of  hostility  towards 
Japanese  in,  71;  population 
of,  93  J  problem,  7 

Canada,  Japanese  emigration 
to,  67-69 

Capitalism,  29 

Castle,  Professor,  quoted,  159 

Chiba,  T.,  quoted,  129 

China,  Japan's  codperation 
with,  42-45 

Chinese,  23,  95 

Chivalry,  proletarian,  21 

Christianity,  28 

Colonization,  Japanese  policy 
of,  1 8 

Confucianism,  25,  27 

Congressional  sub-Committee 
on  Immigration  and  Natu 
ralization,  176 

Constitution,  Japanese,  1 1 

Democracy,  industrial,  31 
Democratic   institutions,   Jap 
anese  training  in,  172 
Den  Do  Dan,  169-170 
Despotism,  Japanese,  22 
Dewey,  Professor  John,  29 
Dispersal  of  Japanese  in  Cali 
fornia,  189 

Disposition,  Japanese,  20 
Dual  nationality,  191 


California,    causes    of    Anti-      East  and  West,  4,  195-196 

247 


248 


Index 


Economic  status  of  Japanese 

in  California,  171 
Education,  system  of,  31 
Emotional  nature,  of  Japanese, 

9 

English,    Japanese   ability   to 

command,  170 
Eta,  1 8 

Eurasiatic  relationship,  6 
Expatriation    Law   of   Japan, 

Appendix  K 

Fanners,    Japanese,    in    Cali 
fornia,  132-138 
Fishberg,  Dr.,  quoted,  164 

"Gentlemen's  Agreement," 
100-106 

German,  influence  on  Japan, 
30;  idealism,  32 

Gikyoshin,  21 

Group  consciousness  of  Japan 
ese,  1 6 

Gulick,  Dr.  Sydney  L.,  quoted, 
157 

Har a  kiri,  12 

Hearn,  Lafcadio,  44 

Hedonism,  Japanese,  15 

Hideyoshi,  10 

History  of  Japanese,  10,  20 

Humanism,  32 

Immigration  to 

Australia,  64-67 

Canada,  67-^9 

South  America,  69 

United  States,  69-75 
Industrial  democracy,  31 
Intelligence    of    Japanese    in 

California,  170 
Intermarriage,  155-162 

Japan,  topographical  condi 
tions  of,  13;  Nature  of,  14 

Japan's,  Asiatic  Policy,  33; 
land  area,  52;  agriculture, 
52-55;  industry,  57-62; 
population,  55-57;  social 
conditions,  62-63 

Japanese,  ability  to  speak 
English,  170;  age  distribu 


tion  of,  in  California,  112; 
agriculture  in  California, 
120-147;  ancestors,  16;  as- 
similability  of,  148-1 77 ;  birth 
rate  in  California,  109-119; 
civilization  of,  14;  Consti 
tution,  1 1 ;  death  rate  of,  in 
California,  117;  descendants 
in  California,  164-166,  174- 
177;  economic  status  of,  in 
California,  171;  farm  labor, 
126-131;  farmers  in  Cali 
fornia,  132-138;  immi 
gration  to  America,  97-107; 
Land  Laws,  142-145;  mo 
rality  of,  in  California,  168- 
169;  nationality,  85-86; 
number  of,  in  California,  91; 
philosophy,  24;  sex  ^  distri 
bution  of,  in  California,  112; 
social  system,  30;  suscepti 
bility  of,  12;  training  in 
civics,  172 

Jesuit  Fathers,  10 

Jones  and  East,  quoted,  159 

Kikotsu,  21 

Kipling,  quoted,  4 

Koiiki,  1 6 

Korea,  amalgamation  of,  34; 

local  self-government  in,  36; 

situation  in,  35-37 
Koreans,  18 
Kusama,  Shiko,  note,  170 

Labor,  30 

Land,  amount  held  by  Japan 
ese  in  California,  135-137 

Land  Laws,  Anti-Alien,  138- 
142;  Appendixes  C  and  D 

League  of  Nations,  19 

Lippman,  Walter,  note,  86 

Manchuria,  37 
Mankind,  6 
Marriage,  Japanese,  n 
Millis,  Professor  H.  A.,  quoted, 

157 

Morality  of  Japanese  in  Cali 
fornia,  168-169 

Morris,  Roland,  186 

Myth,  17 


Index 


249 


Nationalism,  148 
Native-born  Japanese,  174 
Nevada,  23 

Newlands,  U.  S.  Senator,  23 
Nihongi,  16 
Nitobe",  Dr.,  22 

Number  of  Japanese  in  Califor 
nia,  91 

Oakesmith,  John,  quoted,  176 
Occidental  learning,  26 
Occidentalism,  ultra,  19 
Otokodate,  21 

Pacific  Coast,  193-194 
Passports,  103 
Patriotism  of  Japanese,  1 7 
Perry,  Commodore,  3 
Philosophy,  Japanese,  24 
Picture  brides,  113 
Political    rights    of   Japanese, 

31 

Politics  as  a  cause  of  agitation, 

80-82 
Population     of    Japanese     in 

California,  90-97 
Positivism,  English,  28 
Pragmatism,  29,  32 
Pride  of  Japanese,  n,  19 
Propaganda,  83 

Race  war,  7 
Racial  difference,  83-85 
Radicals,  Japanese,  20 
Relationship,  American  Japan 
ese,  7 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  33 
Root-Takahira  Agreement,  34 
Russo-Japanese  war,  18 

Sakura,  Sogoro,  22 
Samurai,  12,  15 


San    Francisco    Chamber    of 

Commerce,  187 
Santayana,  29 
Science,    lack   of,   in    Japan, 

15 

Sex  distribution  of  Japanese  in 
California,  113 

Shantung,  39 

Shibusawa,  Viscount,  186 

Smuggling  of  Japanese  to 
United  States,  107-109 

Social,  force,  23;  milieu  as 
affecting  man,  165;  reorgani 
zation,  29 

South  America,  Japanese  emi 
gration  to,  69 

State  Board  of  Control  of 
California,  96 

Stephens,  Governor,  quoted, 
5.  23,  122 

Suicide  in  Japan,  12 

Thought,  Japanese,  29 
Tokugawa  regime,  22 
Traits,  Japanese,  9 
Treaty,       American- Japanese, 
187,  Appendix  B 

United  States,  the,  Japanese 

immigration  to,  69-74 
Unity,  national,  17 
Utilitarians,  29 

Vanderlip,  Frank,  187 

Wang  Yang  Ming,  26 
White  and  yellow  races,  5 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  quoted,  154 
Women,  status  of  Japanese,  31 

Yamato  race,  14 
"Yellow  peril, "82 
Young  Japan,  14 


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